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Review Article
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Nik Ani Aqah Tuah, Ph.D.*,**, Lin Naing, M.D.*
*PAPRSB Institute of Health Sciences, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Darussalam, **Department of Primary Care and Public Health, Imperial
College London, United Kingdom.
Is Online Assessment in Higher Education
Institutions during COVID-19 Pandemic Reliable?
ABSTRACT
e online learning helps to minimise disruptions on teaching and compromising students’ learning outcomes;
however, there is limited evidence on eective online assessment methods used at Higher Education Institutions
during pandemics. is paper aimed to summarise online assessment methods and recommend reliable as well
as practical approaches used at HEIs during COVID-19 pandemic. We performed a scoping literature review to
identify original papers, reviews and reports that examined the online assessment methods used in higher education
before and during COVID-19 pandemic. We identied common themes in data analysis. e psychometric theory
is useful when designing valid and reliable online assessment methods for online learning, particularly in medical
education. e typical online assessment methods used at HEIs include online quizzes, continuous feedback,
multiple-choice questions and automated assessment for essays. e online tools for formative assessment in higher
education include feedback, self-test quiz and discussion forums. e critical strategies recommended managing
online examination involve setting up online questions using freely available soware and utilising free video
conferencing tool as CCTV on mobile phones for invigilation purposes. Educators must consider readiness among
students and teachers, cheating practices and student diversity when employing online assessment at HEIs. ey
can benet from training for online learning and the assessment methods to prepare them better when facing global
uncertainties such as COVID-19 pandemic. Furthermore, educators must evaluate the methods and their impact
on students’ learning outcomes.
Keywords: Online assessment; online learning; COVID-19; medical education; online examination (Siriraj Med J
2021; 73: 61-68)
Corresponding author: Nik Ani Aqah Tuah
E-mail: anni.mohamad@ubd.edu.bn
Received 5 October 2020 Revised 21 October 2020 Accepted 27 October 2020
ORCID ID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7149-4349
http://dx.doi.org/10.33192/Smj.2021.09
INTRODUCTION
COVID-19 was declared a Public Health Emergency of
International Concern by the World Health Organisation
on 30 January 2020 following an outbreak in Wuhan China
in December 2019. It has high global risk assessment level
and has spread to 213 countries globally.
1
In response to
COVID-19 pandemic, most governments worldwide have
provisionally closed educational institutions, and about
91% of the world’s student population is greatly aected.
Distance learning (DL) may able to assist student learning
as well as support parents, teachers, schools and school
administrators. Also, it oers social care and establishing
communication during periods of school closure.
2
It has
also greatly aected higher education institutions (HEIs)
all around the world. e specic guidance for higher
education (colleges and universities) during COVID-19
pandemic include planning for digital learning (DL) and
temporary dismissal or school closure.
3
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e typical methods of DL used include blended learning
(BL),
4,5
live teaching,
6
ipped classroom (ipped virtual
classroom), online practice questions, video conference,
teleconference and telehealth.
7
BL refers to a combination
of two instruction modes which are e-learning and didactic
(face-to-face) teaching.
4,5
Live teaching is the delivery of
live teaching via online platforms and widely used as an
alternative solution for classes cancellations of ‘in-person’
lectures in universities and colleges.
6
Flipped or inverted
classroom refers to when traditional in-class lectures
and homework exercises are reversed
8
with four core
aspects as such pre-class preparation, in-class activities,
aer-class activities and assessment of student learning.
e HEIs have encountered a signicant challenge to
move forward in teaching and learning activities with
minimal disruptions during the pandemic. Although,
many HEIs have closed down the institutions for a specic
time, others have transitioned to online teaching using
technology that is freely available to compromise the
students’ learning and their learning outcomes minimally.
It is a great challenge to manage assessment at a distance
for HEIs. e paper aimed to summarise online assessment
methods and recommend reliable as well as practical
approaches used at HEIs during COVID-19 pandemic.
It also examined the advantages and disadvantages of
online assessment methods in teaching and learning.
Methods of scoping review
We employed a scoping literature review to identify
original papers, review and reports that examined the
online assessment methods used in higher education
before and during COVID-19 pandemic. e key search
terms used include an online assessment, COVID-19,
online tests, online examination, concept and other
relevant terms, specically in a higher education context.
We used Google Scholar and Pub Med search engines
focussing on articles published since the year 2000 and
identied common themes during data analysis.
Concepts and frameworks for online assessment
e online and blended learning in higher education
confronted educators with several critical issues related to
teaching, learning and assessment in an unconventional
environment. One of the critical issues is the validity and
reliability of assessment using online platforms that met
the intended purposes.
9
e online assessment allows the
delivery of constant and real-time feedback that can be
given at a time and place appropriate for both the student
or the educator.
10
Educators must consider fundamental
concepts of assessment in online learning specically
for medical education that include theories of expertise
development and psychometric as well as an assessment
framework for learning. e expertise development theory
states that the progression from novice to expert showing
improvement in the ability to integrate basic facts derives
from semantic networks to illness scripts and instance
scripts into complex concepts. e processes enable
the expert to promptly recognise the problem, develop
a precise interpretation of the problem and formulate
ecient problem-solving approaches. Psychometric
theories emphasis on the validity of the assessment, oer
reliable measurement, and reproducible outcomes. e
questions can be translated into scores and eventually used
to make inferences about the construct of interest.
11
A
framework employed for online assessment in emergency
remote teaching during COVID-19 pandemic highlighted
nine guidelines that are highly significant to health
professions education. e guidelines include ensuring
alignment of assessment activities with learning objectives,
considering the diversity of students’ circumstances,
utilising formative and summative assessments, and
stimulating student learning with online assessment.
Other components are to consider the format of online
assessment, ascertain clear communication to students
regarding assessment matters, ensure high-quality feedback,
and address assessment validity threats.
12
There are
ten principles of best-practice online assessment that
comprise of: longitudinal reection where educators
use online formative assessment to improve teaching
practice and learning tasks; higher-quality feedback; using
readymade tools (such as rubrics or assessment standards)
as performance criteria for online assessment tasks;
technology-enabled authentic learning that encourages
students to have real-life value when attempting online
assessment tasks; and enhanced collaboration require
discussion and collaboration among students.
13
Evidence-based strategies of online assessment
e evidence-based strategies for online assessment
in HEIs include online quizzes,
14
continuous feedback,
10
multiple-choice questions,
10,15
simulated clinical skills,
10
clinical examinations or viva-voce using real-time
communication technology (such as skype, zoom)
10,15
and automated assessment for essays.
14,15
e online quiz
is a method to assess the knowledge that promotes self-
directed learning and may improve the eectiveness of
teaching.
14
e closed-answer type questions (multiple-
choice questions) can assess essential knowledge and oen
used for online educational tool and assessment.
10,15
For
viva-voce or actual clinical examinations conducted over
online (via skype or zoom) would enable the assessor to
observe and interact from a distance location, thus may
Tuah et al.
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reduce costs (such as accommodation, travel and subsistence
for both examiner and student) and eliminate diculties
of traditional clinical assessments (e.g. examination halls
and printed paper) in medical education.
10
Arguably,
essays are the most eective tool to evaluate learning
outcomes that indicate learner aptitude to recall, organise
and integrate viewpoints in the form of written work.
e essay questions can assess learning outcomes that
relate to the evaluation and synthesis levels of Bloom’s
(1956) taxonomy. erefore, automated assessment
for essays arguably oers a reliable scoring method
that can be costly and time savings. e methods of
automated assessment of free-text answers include Project
Essay Grade (PEG), Intelligent Essay Assessor (IEA),
Educational Testing service I, Electronic Essay Rater
(E-Rater), C-Rater, BETSY, Intelligent Essay Marking
System, SEAR, Paperless School free text Marking Engine
and Automark. The main problems encountered in
automated essay grading are lacking standard to calibrate
human marks and ambiguous set of rules for selecting
master texts.
16
Meanwhile, the online tools for formative assessment
in higher education include self-test quiz tools, discussion
forums and e-portfolios. e critical characteristics of
practical online formative assessment are the establishment
of a learner and assessment centred focus through formative
feedback and enhanced learner engagement with valuable
learning experiences. e validity and reliability of an
online formative assessment include ongoing accurate
assessment activities and interactive formative feedback.
9
e advantages of online assessment include costs
saving (such as for printing costs, examination spaces,
travel) and use of freely available online tools, e.g.
SurveyMonkey, Google Form, HubSpot Forms, CANVAS
free for teachers
17
and educational soware products.
Meanwhile, the disadvantages of online assessment
include soware costs to develop educational content and
supporting infrastructure, for example, internet servers,
data storage, computer-aided learning rooms.
10,18
Other
problems of online assessment are unreliable systems (due
to poor network connectivity, hardware, soware, power
supply), lack of online and physical security systems to
safeguard assessments and cheating.
10
Studies showed the benets of using online assessments
are reduction of paper usage, decreased concerns over
the security of transporting test papers, exible time and
venue, continuous feedback and random selection and
reproducibility of exam questions.
19,20
e value of online
formative assessment tools includes enhancement of learner
engagement and the creation of a learning community.
9
In contrast, some studies argued that online assessments
have negative impacts, mainly psychological stress to
both teachers and students due to rigid technological
settings, reduced personalised engagement with faculty
19
and negatively inuence student’s grades.
20,21
e factors
that may inuence students’ scores and grades for online
assessment involve the comparability of identical tests
taken in dierent formats, students’ level of preparedness
for the mode of test and the quality of the test,
22
slow
logins to test, delayed loading of a test, and inexperienced
teachers.
21,23
e aspects that may increase acceptance
for online assessments among students are students’
accustomed to the format, high students’ condence
in the system,
24
use of online formative assessments
for practice before in-class tests
25
and technological
adoptions.
21,26
Recent study highlighted that students
did not understand the necessity for online assessments
due to technological incompetence of students and
teachers, mistrust in the technology infrastructure and
signicant reliance on multiple-choice questions format.
e students preferred online assessments that provide
constructive, timely and personalised feedback, as well as
a gradual transition towards online assessments together
with technical training for both students and faculty.
ey also required active individualised interaction
with instructors to incorporate online assessments into
higher education
21
eectively.
Online examination
Before educators decide to go for online examination,
they may consider other alternative assessment options
such as assignments, writing reports (that require
students to choose dierent titles and dierent settings
from classroom exercises), or open-book examination.
Evidence shows that assessment by coursework alone
or by blending coursework and examinations tends to
produce higher marks than assessment by examinations
alone.
27
e courses that need alternative assessment poses
several challenges when higher-level learning objectives
(based on levels of revised Bloom’s Taxonomy such as
apply, analyse, evaluate and create).
28
ese methods
require more time reading the write-up and checking for
plagiarism, and also there is subjectivity issue in marking
and grading those materials. Potential problems with
coursework assessment include collusion, plagiarism and
personation (in particular ‘contract cheating’ through
the use of tailored essays).
27
Educators may use online
plagiarism checking platform,
29
which are freely available
at present, such as DupliChecker and Grammarly. Also,
educators must recognise that there were dierences
between sciences and arts-type subjects which indicate
distinctive assessment practices.
30
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Nonetheless, educators have increasingly utilised
assessment by coursework that may less likely cause
possible risks to academic standards,
27
and students prefer
them highly for online distance learning.
31
Educators are
required to assess lower-order learning objectives (e.g.
remember and understand) in some courses.
28
Some
educators in many HEIs may have made fewer eorts
to assess lower-order learning objectives in the current
situation of COVID-19 outbreak and rapid transition
from traditional to online learning. ese circumstances
could lead to some degree of compromise in assessing
intended learning outcomes. On the other hand, the
primary challenge for online examination is to prevent
or control potential cheating among students. Table 1
shows a comparison between online and traditional
assessment, while we present a summary of formative
and summative of online assessment methods in Table 2.
We use online free soware for teaching and learning
in the courses. e two key strategies recommended to
manage online examination are 1) set up online questions
using free soware, and 2) use a free video-conferencing
tool as closed-circuit television (CCTV) through the
candidates’ mobile phones for invigilation purposes.
TABLE 1. Comparison between online and traditional assessment.
Items Online assessment Traditional assessment
Benets Allowsdeliveryofconstantandreal-time Assessmentbycourseworkaloneorby
feedbackthatcanbegivenatatimeand blendingcourseworkandexaminations
placeappropriateforboththestudentor tendstoproducehighermarksthan
theeducator assessmentbyexaminationsalone
Concept&Framework Onlineassessmentinemergencyremote Theoryofexpertisedevelopment,
teachingframework,principlesof theoryofpsychometricand
best-practiceonlineassessment assessmentframeworkforlearning
Methods • Onlinequizzes, • Multiple-choicequestions
• Built-incontinuousfeedback, • Short-answerquestions
• Multiple-choicequestions, • Shortessays
• Simulatedclinicalskills, • Assignments
• Clinicalexaminationsorviva-voceusing • Writingreports
real-timecommunicationtechnology, • Open-bookexamination
• Automatedassessmentforessays, • Traditionalpaperfeedback
• True/false,llintheblank,llinmultiple • Traditionalpapergradingand
blanks,andessayquestion, marking
• Speedgrader • Checkingplagiarismmanually
• Plagiarismchecksoftware
Disadvantage Student perspectives: Student perspectives:
• Internetunavailability • Costforpaperandotherlogistics
• Internetinstability • Slowfeedback
• Unabletoaffordinternet Faculty perspectives:
• Costofinternet/wi • Moretimeforgrading
Faculty perspectives: • Moretimeforcheckingplagiarism
• Requiretraining • Logisticsforinvigilation
• Requiremotivation
• Requireonlineplatform
• Requiretechnicalsupport
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TABLE 2. Summary of formative and summative online assessment methods.
Formative Summative
Individual • Onlinequizzes • Multiple-choicequestions
• Probingshortquestionstoenhance • Shortanswerquestions
thestudy, • Clinicalexaminations
• Interactiveformativefeedbackimmediate • Viva-voceusingcommunication
automaticorbuilt-infeedback technology(suchasskype,zoom)
• Simulatedclinicalskills • Automatedassessmentforessays
• Self-testquiztools
• Discussionforums
• E-portfolios
Group • Grouponlinequizzes • Groupcommunityoutreachproject
• Grouppresentationandfeedback onlinewrittenreport
• Groupcommunityoutreachproject
presentation
• Peer-assessmentforgroupinteraction
Setting up online questions
Teachers can use several free online tools,
17
SurveyMonkey, Google Form, HubSpot Forms, CANVAS
32
to set up online questions. Among all these free tools, we
would like to recommend the following features available
on CANVAS which are suitable for online examination:
Set up dierent types of exam questions such as
multiple-choice, true/false, ll in the blank, ll in
multiple blanks, multiple answers, multiple dropdowns,
matching, numerical answers, formula question,
essay question, and le upload questions. Some
of these questions are suitable for lower-order
learning objectives in online examination, and also
for coursework assessment.
Set up the questions to appear one question at a
time that only allows candidates to see and attempt
each question while moving forward when answering
them. If we set one question at a time, there is
an option available to lock each question so that
the candidates cannot go back to previous questions
and change their answers.
For multiple-choice questions, there is a function
to shue answers randomly that enable the sequence
or order of answers to choose for each question to
be dierent for each candidate.
For all question types, educators can set starting
available time and date, end time and date, and
duration for the examination. e timer is shown
on the screen while the candidate is attempting the
examination.
For multiple-choice and true/false questions, set
correct answer so that CANVAS will automatically
mark the questions at a set due date and time of
examination. The candidate can see the marks
immediately aer the submission. erefore, educators
may have to set the option to hide the marks if they
wish not to show the marks then.
Setting up a CCTV with a candidate mobile phone
Some free video conferencing soware
33
(such as
Skype, Zoom, ezTalk and Webex) can be downloaded
to the candidate’s mobile phone and used as CCTV for
invigilation tool. e candidate’s mobile phone is placed
about one meter away at right or le side, while the candidate
is sitting facing a computer. e invigilator should be able
to see the candidate’s computer screen, keyboard and
the candidate from the side through the mobile phone
during the examination time. e soware (e.g. Webex,
Skype, Zoom) also can record the entire duration of the
examination; thus, it serves as additional deterrent to
prevent cheating. Before the start of the examination,
the invigilator can use the CCTV mobile phone to check
candidate’s identity (ID card), and 360-degrees scan
view of the room where the candidate is setting up for
the examination.
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Recommended measures for online examination
e following are recommended measures for the
online examination that educators should consider:
Use the mobile phone as CCTV to check pre-examination
room set up for candidate’s laptop, table, chair and
position. e set up is organised a day, preferably
before the examination. It may take time to set the
position of the mobile phone that enables invigilator
to see clearly on areas mentioned above, and most
oen the area needs proper lighting.
Clear rules are given to the candidate in advance
Mock online examination if the candidate is rst-
timer.
Short multiple examination sessions such as for
2 hours session break it down into 30 minutes per
session with a 10-minute break is given in between
each session. Some free soware (like Zoom, ezTalk)
may impose usage limit of 40 minutes per session,
and then the user must reconnect to the soware.
Candidate must not wear earphone or headset.
During the examination, the candidate is only
allowed to view the computer screen but not a mobile
phone, and also not allowed to browse other web
page or soware. Invigilator monitors the candidate
through the CCTV mobile phone.
Setting up rules, guidelines and backup plan if
the internet is interrupted during the examination.
Both educator and candidate must take some degree
of responsibility to ensure proper internet connection,
and stable streaming is available on site.
Assign one invigilator to observe eight candidates
via nine small screens on the computer monitor
(screen).
Conduct few mock online examination sessions
to be familiar with procedures, soware and testing/
checking internet stability. Educators can take
roles as invigilators and students during each mock
examination.
Considerations for online assessment
Readiness
In the light of pandemic, institutional and educator
readiness are essential requirements of the online assessment.
Institutional readiness refers to institutional policies,
resources and practices, for instance, internet coverage
and availability of the IT support team. Internet access
is a critical infrastructure for online teaching. IT support
team is an essential resource during the transition from
traditional to online teaching in many HEIs. Educator
readiness refers to educator’s acceptance and ‘buy-in’ when
changing to online teaching and learning that include
taking up training for teaching methods, assessment
and online applications.
12,13
Cheating practices
Evidence
34-36
shows distinctive cheating practices
during online examination such as impersonation,
forbidden aids, peeking, peer collaboration, outside
assistance and student–sta collusion.
36
e common
possible cheating practices during the mock online
examination include screen sharing among candidates,
using multiple monitors, using a mobile phone, using
Bluetooth technology headset, impersonation, taking
a screenshot and sending to friends, and traditional
ways such as notes on their palms or attached notes to
computer monitors. e various countermeasures for
those cheating practices were using biometry, mingling,
shuing, random drawing, sequencing, broadcasting
methods
36
and physical screens parting candidates.
10
We
recommended aordable and straightforward ways to
minimise possible cheating attempts among candidates
in low resource settings. e strategies are to check the
identity of the candidate, check examination room and
setting, record both audio and video throughout the
examination, and closely observe on candidate’s computer
screen or monitor. Nonetheless, we recognise that there
is no cheat-proof online and paper-based examinations.
In the rapidly shiing situation of COVID-19 pandemic
and uncertainties globally, educators in HEIs must explore
the best approaches to curtail disruptions on students
teaching and learning, and assessment.
Student diversity
ere are various types of diversity existed among
students in the context of online learning that include:
socioeconomic status; access to devices; stability of internet
connection; racial and cultural dierences; learners with
special education needs; and second-language English
speakers. erefore, educators must consider diversity
when selecting online assessment methods. Some students
may not have internet access and computers for web-based
assessments, however able to use mobile for text-based
collaborative tools (messaging, WhatsApp). Students
with physical and learning impairments may use assistive
devices. Students who have English as a second language
may utilise technology tools with listening and speaking
functions to accommodate diversity in the assessment.
13,37
CONCLUSION
Students and educators accept online learning
during COVID-19 pandemic that considerably helps to
lessen disruptions in teaching, learning and assessment.
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is paper has highlighted online assessment methods
and recommended reliable and practical approaches
that educators can utilise for online learning at HEIs
during COVID-19 pandemic. e psychometric theory
oers a conceptual framework when designing valid and
reliable online assessment methods for online learning,
particularly in medical education. e typical online
assessment methods used at HEIs include online quizzes,
continuous feedback, multiple-choice questions, simulated
clinical skills, clinical examinations or viva-voce using
real-time communication technology and automated
assessment for essays. e online tools for formative
assessment in higher education include feedback, self-test
quiz, discussion forums and e-portfolios. Educators must
consider alternative online assessment and the potential
problems before embarking on online examination in
HEIs. e critical strategies recommended managing
online examination involve setting up online questions
using freely available soware and utilising free video
conferencing tool as CCTV on mobile phones for invigilation
purposes. Educators must consider readiness among
students and teachers, cheating practices and student
diversity when employing online assessment at HEIs.
e aordable and straightforward countermeasures
for cheating practices among students in low resource
settings during online examination include identication
of candidate, scan examination room and setting through
video conferencing tool and close observation of candidate’s
computer screen or monitor.
In facing uncertainties of the global pandemic such
as COVID-19, educators must familiarise with process,
procedures and freely available technology for online
learning and assessment. Also, educators must evaluate
the methods and their impact on students’ learning
outcomes.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We wish to acknowledge the Teaching and Learning
Centre, Universiti Brunei Darussalam for oering various
training on blended learning.
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