The Epidemiology of Early Childhood Caries
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Published:
Jun 30, 2017
Keywords:
Early childhood caries ECC Epidemiology of Early Childhood Caries Review of Early Childhood Caries Asian countries
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Abstract
This review explores the epidemiology of Early Childhood Caries (ECC) worldwide and in Asian countries. The literature search was carried out through PubMed and ScienceDirect databases. Due to only limited evidence published in the Asian region, the prevalence of ECC in Asian countries was derived from the WHO website, a conference report and a conference proceedings book. A total of 17 papers were extracted, while the total number of papers read for qualitative information in this review was 66. The results show that, currently, there are too few surveys reporting appropriate data to indicate the true seriousness of ECC problem, especially, in Asian countries. Moreover, variations in case definition and diagnostic criteria often made the data incomparable. Failure to address the seriousness of the problem, including the presence of non-cavitated lesions and pulpally involved teeth resulted in ECC being underestimated. The negative consequences of ECC and untreated ECC, affected the quality of life among children, their families, communities and health care systems. Therefore, harmonization of ECC definition, criteria and index age in conducting epidemiological data may lead to more understanding of ECC in each country and within the Asian region, and more appropriate and effective measures to tackle the ECC problem.
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1.
Khitdee C. The Epidemiology of Early Childhood Caries. Th Dent PH J [Internet]. 2017 Jun. 30 [cited 2024 Dec. 23];22(พิเศษ):3-13. Available from: https://he02.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/ThDPHJo/article/view/149498
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Original Article
References
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2. Horowitz AM. Response to Weinstein: public health issues in early childhood caries. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 1998;26(1 Suppl):91-5.
3. Jin BH, Ma DS, Moon HS, Paik DI, Hahn SH, Horowitz AM. Early childhood caries: prevalence and risk factors in Seoul, Korea. J Public Health Dent 2003;63(3):183-8.
4. Huntington NL, Kim IJ, Hughes CV. Caries-risk factors for Hispanic children affected by early childhood caries. Pediatr Dent 2002;24(6):536-42.
5. Sally Chu. Review - Early Childhood Caries: Risk and Prevention in Underserved Populations. 2006 [cited 2016 2 February]; Available from: https://www.jyi.org/issue/review-early-childhood-caries-risk-and-prevention-in-underserved-populations/.
6. American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry. editor. Definition of Early Childhood Caries (ECC); 2008.
7. Ismail AI, Sohn W. A systematic review of clinical diagnostic criteria of early childhood caries. J Public Health Dent. 1999;59(3):171-91.
8. Ramos-Gomez FJ, Tomar SL, Ellison J, Artiga N, Sintes J, Vicuna G. Assessment of early childhood caries and dietary habits in a population of migrant Hispanic children in Stockton, California. J Dent Child. 1999;66(6):395-403.
9. Dye BA, Hsu KL, Afful J. Prevalence and Measurement of Dental Caries in Young Children. Pediatr Dent. 2015;37(3):200-16.
10. Seow WK, Amaratunge A, Sim R, Wan A. Prevalence of caries in urban Australian aborigines aged 1-3.5 years. Pediatr Dent. 1999;21(2):91-6.
11. Klein H, Palmer C. Studies on dental caries: V. Familial resemblance in the caries experience of siblings. Public Health Reports. 1938;53(31):1353-64.
12. Gruebbel AO. The measurement of dental cavities prevalence and treatment services for deciduos teeth. J Dent Res. 1944;23:163-8.
13. Milnes AR. Description and epidemiology of nursing caries. J Public Health Dent 1996;56(1):38-50
14. Malmo university. Oral Health Database: Country Oral Health Profiles. 2016; Available from: https://www.mah.se/CAPP/Country-Oral-Health-Profiles/.
15. Yupin Songpaisan, editor. “Caries Control throughout life in Asia” International Dental Conference on “Caries Control throughout life in Asia”; 2013; Beyond Resort Krabi, Krabi, Thailand.
16. Chantana Ungchusak, editor. the 1st ECC forum 2014, Thailand. The 1st Early Childhood Caries Forum; 2014; Bangkok, Thailand.
17. Ripa LW. Nursing caries: a comprehensive review. Pediatric Dent. 1988;10(4):268-82.
18. Vachirarojpisan T, Shinada K, Kawaguchi Y. The process and outcome of a programme for preventing early childhood caries in Thailand. Community Dent Health. 2005;22(4):253-9.
19. De Grauwe A, Aps JK, Martens LC. Early Childhood Caries (ECC): what's in a name? Eur J Paediatr Dent. 2004;5(2):62-70.
20. Grindefjord M DG, Ekström G, Höjer B, Modéer T. Caries prevalence in 2.5-year-old children. Caries Res. 1993;27:505-10.
21. Ferreira SH, Beria JU, Kramer PF, Feldens EG, Feldens CA. Dental caries in 0- to 5-year-old Brazilian children: prevalence, severity, and associated factors. Int J Paediatr Dent. 2007;17(4):289-96.
22. Mattos-Graner Rde O, Rontani RM, Gavião MB, Bocatto HA. Caries prevalence in 6 to 36 month old Brazilian children. Community Dent Health. 1996;13(2):96-8.
23. Weinstein P et al. Results of a promising open trial to prevent baby bottle tooth decay: a fluoride varnish study. ASDC J Dent Child. 1994;61(5):338-41.
24. Thitasomakul S, Thearmontree A, Piwat S, Chankanka O, Pithpornchaiyakul W, Teanpaisan R, et al. A longitudinal study of early childhood caries in 9- to 18-month-old Thai infants. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 2006;34(6):429-36.
25. Villena R. “The 1st Early Children Caries Forum”. The 1st Early Childhood Caries Forum 2014; Bangkok, Thailand.
26. Benzian H, Monse B, Heinrich-Weltzien R, Hobdell M, Mulder J, van Palenstein Helderman W. Untreated severe dental decay: a neglected determinant of low Body Mass Index in 12-year-old Filipino children. BMC Public Health. 2011;11:558.
27. Monse B, Heinrich-Weltzien R, Benzian H, Holmgren C, van Palenstein Helderman W. PUFA--an index of clinical consequences of untreated dental caries. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 2010;38(1):77-82.
28. Grund K, Goddon I, Schüler IM, Lehmann T, Heinrich-Weltzien R. Clinical consequences of untreated dental caries in German 5- and 8-year-olds. BMC Oral Health. 2015;15(1):140.
29. Bhoomika W, Ramakrishna Y, Munshi AK. Relationship between severe early childhood caries and body mass index. J Clin Pediatr Dent. 2013;37(3):235-42.
30. Clarke M, Locker D, Berall G, Pencharz P, Kenny DJ, Judd P. Malnourishment in a population of young children with severe early childhood caries. Pediatr Dent. 2006;28(3):254-9.
31. Zhao Y, Ge LH, Yu C, Liu Z, Wang YF. The relationship between early childhood caries and child temperament. Zhonghua Kou Qiang Yi Xue Za Zhi. 2006;41(7):422-5.
32. Sheiham A. Dental caries affects body weight, growth and quality of life in pre-school children. Br Dent J. 2006;201(10):625–6.
33. Ramos-Gomez FJ, Weintraub JA, Gansky SA, Hoover CI, Featherstone JD. Bacterial, behavioral and environmental factors associated with early childhood caries. J Clin Pediatr Dent. 2002;26(2):165-73.
34. Weinstein P. Public health issues in early childhood caries. . Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 1998;26(1 Suppl):84-90.
35. Tinanoff N, O'Sullivan DM. Early childhood caries: overview and recent findings. Pediatr Dent. 1997;19(1):12-6.
36. Li Y, WW. Predicting caries in permanent teeth from caries in primary teeth: an eight-year cohort study. J Dent Res. 2002;81(8):561–6.
37. Sheller B, Churchill SS, Williams BJ, Davidson B. Body mass index of children with severe early childhood caries. Pediatr Dent. 2009;31(3):216-21.
38. Nalliah RP, Allareddy V, Elangovan S, Karimbux N, Allareddy V. Hospital based emergency department visits attributed to dental caries in the United States in 2006. J Evid Based Dent Pract. 2010;10(4):212-22.
39. Jones DB SC, Phipps KR. An oral health survey of Head Start children in Alaska: oral health status, treatment needs, and cost of treatment. J Public Health Dent. 1992;52:86-93.
40. Martins-Junior PA, Vieira-Andrade RG, Correa-Faria P, Oliveira-Ferreira F, Marques LS, Ramos-Jorge ML. Impact of early childhood caries on the oral health-related quality of life of preschool children and their parents. Caries Res. 2013;47(3):211-8.
41. Krisdapong S, Somkotra T, Kueakulpipat W. Disparities in Early Childhood Caries and Its Impact on Oral Health-Related Quality of Life of Preschool Children. Asia Pac J Public Health. 2012;26(3):285-94.
42. Pine CM. An investigation of the relationship between untreated decayed teeth and dental sepsis in 5-year-old children. Br Dent J. 2006;200(1):45-7.
43. Anderson HK, Drummond BK, Thomson WM. Changes in aspects of children's oral-health-related quality of life following dental treatment under general anaesthesia. Int J Paediatr Dent. 2004;14(5):317-25.
44. White H, Lee JY, Vann WF Jr. Parental evaluation of quality of life measures following pediatric dental treatment using general anesthesia. Anesth Prog. 2003;50(3):105-10.
45. Bugis BA. Early childhood caries and the impact of current u.s. Medicaid program: an overview. Int J Dent. 2012;2012:348237.
46. Baggio S, Abarca M, Bodenmann P, Gehri M, Madrid C. Early childhood caries in Switzerland: a marker of social inequalities. BMC Oral Health. 2015;Jul 22;15:82. .
47. Do LG, Spencer AJ, Slade GD, Ha DH, Roberts-Thomson KF, Liu P. Trend of income-related inequality of child oral health in Australia. J Dent Res. 2010; 89(9):959-64.
48. Wyne A, Darwish S, Adenubi J, Battata S, Khan N. The prevalence and pattern of nursing caries in Saudi preschool children. Int J Paediatr Dent. 2001;11(5):361-4.
49. Rosenblatt A, Zarzar P. The prevalence of early childhood caries in 12- to 36-month-old children in Recife, Brazil. ASDC J Dent Child. 2002;69(3):319-24, 236.
50. Nomura Y, Tsuge S, Hayashi M, Sasaki M, Yamauchi T, Ueda N, et al. A survey on the risk factors for the prevalence of dental caries among preschool children in Japan. Pediatric Dental Journal. 2004;14(1):79-85.
51. Peressini S, Leake JL, Mayhall JT, Maar M, Trudeau R. Prevalence of early childhood caries among First Nations children, District of Manitoulin, Ontario. Int J Paediatr Dent. 2004;14(2):101-10.
52. Skeie MS, Espelid I, Skaare AB, Gimmestad A. Caries patterns in an urban preschool population in Norway. Eur J Paediatr Dent. 2005;6(1):16-22.
53. Ferreira SH, Beria JU, Kramer PF, Feldens EG, Feldens CA. Dental caries in 0- to 5-year-old Brazilian children: prevalence, severity, and associated factors. Int J Paediatr Dent. 2007;17(4):289-96.
54. Schroth RJ, Cheba V. Determining the prevalence and risk factors for early childhood caries in a community dental health clinic. Pediatr Dent. 2007;29(5):387-96.
55. Hugoson A, Koch G, Helkimo AN, Lundin SA. Caries prevalence and distribution in individuals aged 3-20 years in Jönköping, Sweden, over a 3-year period (1973-2003). Int J Paediatr Dent. 2008;18(1):18-26.
56. Postma TC, Ayo-Yusuf OA, van Wyk PJ. Socio-demographic correlates of early childhood caries prevalence and severity in a developing country--South Africa. Int Dent J. 2008;58(2):91-7.
57. Valencia-Rojas N, Lawrence HP, Goodman D. Prevalence of early childhood caries in a population of children with history of maltreatment. J Public Health Dent. 2008;68(2):94-101.
58. Nunn ME, Dietrich T, Singh HK, Henshaw MM, Kressin NR. Prevalence of early childhood caries among very young urban Boston children compared with US children. J Public Health Dent. 2009;69(3):156-62.
59. Prakash P, Subramaniam P, Durgesh BH, Konde S. Prevalence of early childhood caries and associated risk factors in preschool children of urban Bangalore, India: A cross-sectional study. Eur J Dent. 2012;6(2):141-52.
60. Hong CH, Bagramian RA, Hashim Nainar SM, Straffon LH, Shen L, Hsu CY. High caries prevalence and risk factors among young preschool children in an urban community with water fluoridation. Int J Paediatr Dent. 2014;24(1):32-42.
61. Monaghan N, Davies GM, Jones CM, Neville JS, Pitts NB. The caries experience of 5-year-old children in Scotland, Wales and England in 2011-2012: reports of cross-sectional surveys using BASCD criteria. Community Dent Health. 2014;31:105-10.
62. Hallett KB, O'Rourke PK. Pattern and severity of early childhoos caries. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 2006;34(1):25-35.
63. Kaste LM, Drury TF, Horowitz AM, Beltran E. An evaluation of NHANES III estimates of early childhood caries. J Public Health Dent. 1999;59(3):198-200.
64. Reisine S, Douglass JM. Psychosocial and behavioral issues in early childhood caries. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 1998;26(1 Suppl):32-44.
65. Ismail AI. Prevention of early childhood caries. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 1998;26(1 Suppl):49-61.
66. Low W, Tan S, Schwartz S. The effect of severe caries on the quality of life in young children. Pediatr Dent. 1999;21(6):325-6.
2. Horowitz AM. Response to Weinstein: public health issues in early childhood caries. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 1998;26(1 Suppl):91-5.
3. Jin BH, Ma DS, Moon HS, Paik DI, Hahn SH, Horowitz AM. Early childhood caries: prevalence and risk factors in Seoul, Korea. J Public Health Dent 2003;63(3):183-8.
4. Huntington NL, Kim IJ, Hughes CV. Caries-risk factors for Hispanic children affected by early childhood caries. Pediatr Dent 2002;24(6):536-42.
5. Sally Chu. Review - Early Childhood Caries: Risk and Prevention in Underserved Populations. 2006 [cited 2016 2 February]; Available from: https://www.jyi.org/issue/review-early-childhood-caries-risk-and-prevention-in-underserved-populations/.
6. American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry. editor. Definition of Early Childhood Caries (ECC); 2008.
7. Ismail AI, Sohn W. A systematic review of clinical diagnostic criteria of early childhood caries. J Public Health Dent. 1999;59(3):171-91.
8. Ramos-Gomez FJ, Tomar SL, Ellison J, Artiga N, Sintes J, Vicuna G. Assessment of early childhood caries and dietary habits in a population of migrant Hispanic children in Stockton, California. J Dent Child. 1999;66(6):395-403.
9. Dye BA, Hsu KL, Afful J. Prevalence and Measurement of Dental Caries in Young Children. Pediatr Dent. 2015;37(3):200-16.
10. Seow WK, Amaratunge A, Sim R, Wan A. Prevalence of caries in urban Australian aborigines aged 1-3.5 years. Pediatr Dent. 1999;21(2):91-6.
11. Klein H, Palmer C. Studies on dental caries: V. Familial resemblance in the caries experience of siblings. Public Health Reports. 1938;53(31):1353-64.
12. Gruebbel AO. The measurement of dental cavities prevalence and treatment services for deciduos teeth. J Dent Res. 1944;23:163-8.
13. Milnes AR. Description and epidemiology of nursing caries. J Public Health Dent 1996;56(1):38-50
14. Malmo university. Oral Health Database: Country Oral Health Profiles. 2016; Available from: https://www.mah.se/CAPP/Country-Oral-Health-Profiles/.
15. Yupin Songpaisan, editor. “Caries Control throughout life in Asia” International Dental Conference on “Caries Control throughout life in Asia”; 2013; Beyond Resort Krabi, Krabi, Thailand.
16. Chantana Ungchusak, editor. the 1st ECC forum 2014, Thailand. The 1st Early Childhood Caries Forum; 2014; Bangkok, Thailand.
17. Ripa LW. Nursing caries: a comprehensive review. Pediatric Dent. 1988;10(4):268-82.
18. Vachirarojpisan T, Shinada K, Kawaguchi Y. The process and outcome of a programme for preventing early childhood caries in Thailand. Community Dent Health. 2005;22(4):253-9.
19. De Grauwe A, Aps JK, Martens LC. Early Childhood Caries (ECC): what's in a name? Eur J Paediatr Dent. 2004;5(2):62-70.
20. Grindefjord M DG, Ekström G, Höjer B, Modéer T. Caries prevalence in 2.5-year-old children. Caries Res. 1993;27:505-10.
21. Ferreira SH, Beria JU, Kramer PF, Feldens EG, Feldens CA. Dental caries in 0- to 5-year-old Brazilian children: prevalence, severity, and associated factors. Int J Paediatr Dent. 2007;17(4):289-96.
22. Mattos-Graner Rde O, Rontani RM, Gavião MB, Bocatto HA. Caries prevalence in 6 to 36 month old Brazilian children. Community Dent Health. 1996;13(2):96-8.
23. Weinstein P et al. Results of a promising open trial to prevent baby bottle tooth decay: a fluoride varnish study. ASDC J Dent Child. 1994;61(5):338-41.
24. Thitasomakul S, Thearmontree A, Piwat S, Chankanka O, Pithpornchaiyakul W, Teanpaisan R, et al. A longitudinal study of early childhood caries in 9- to 18-month-old Thai infants. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 2006;34(6):429-36.
25. Villena R. “The 1st Early Children Caries Forum”. The 1st Early Childhood Caries Forum 2014; Bangkok, Thailand.
26. Benzian H, Monse B, Heinrich-Weltzien R, Hobdell M, Mulder J, van Palenstein Helderman W. Untreated severe dental decay: a neglected determinant of low Body Mass Index in 12-year-old Filipino children. BMC Public Health. 2011;11:558.
27. Monse B, Heinrich-Weltzien R, Benzian H, Holmgren C, van Palenstein Helderman W. PUFA--an index of clinical consequences of untreated dental caries. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 2010;38(1):77-82.
28. Grund K, Goddon I, Schüler IM, Lehmann T, Heinrich-Weltzien R. Clinical consequences of untreated dental caries in German 5- and 8-year-olds. BMC Oral Health. 2015;15(1):140.
29. Bhoomika W, Ramakrishna Y, Munshi AK. Relationship between severe early childhood caries and body mass index. J Clin Pediatr Dent. 2013;37(3):235-42.
30. Clarke M, Locker D, Berall G, Pencharz P, Kenny DJ, Judd P. Malnourishment in a population of young children with severe early childhood caries. Pediatr Dent. 2006;28(3):254-9.
31. Zhao Y, Ge LH, Yu C, Liu Z, Wang YF. The relationship between early childhood caries and child temperament. Zhonghua Kou Qiang Yi Xue Za Zhi. 2006;41(7):422-5.
32. Sheiham A. Dental caries affects body weight, growth and quality of life in pre-school children. Br Dent J. 2006;201(10):625–6.
33. Ramos-Gomez FJ, Weintraub JA, Gansky SA, Hoover CI, Featherstone JD. Bacterial, behavioral and environmental factors associated with early childhood caries. J Clin Pediatr Dent. 2002;26(2):165-73.
34. Weinstein P. Public health issues in early childhood caries. . Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 1998;26(1 Suppl):84-90.
35. Tinanoff N, O'Sullivan DM. Early childhood caries: overview and recent findings. Pediatr Dent. 1997;19(1):12-6.
36. Li Y, WW. Predicting caries in permanent teeth from caries in primary teeth: an eight-year cohort study. J Dent Res. 2002;81(8):561–6.
37. Sheller B, Churchill SS, Williams BJ, Davidson B. Body mass index of children with severe early childhood caries. Pediatr Dent. 2009;31(3):216-21.
38. Nalliah RP, Allareddy V, Elangovan S, Karimbux N, Allareddy V. Hospital based emergency department visits attributed to dental caries in the United States in 2006. J Evid Based Dent Pract. 2010;10(4):212-22.
39. Jones DB SC, Phipps KR. An oral health survey of Head Start children in Alaska: oral health status, treatment needs, and cost of treatment. J Public Health Dent. 1992;52:86-93.
40. Martins-Junior PA, Vieira-Andrade RG, Correa-Faria P, Oliveira-Ferreira F, Marques LS, Ramos-Jorge ML. Impact of early childhood caries on the oral health-related quality of life of preschool children and their parents. Caries Res. 2013;47(3):211-8.
41. Krisdapong S, Somkotra T, Kueakulpipat W. Disparities in Early Childhood Caries and Its Impact on Oral Health-Related Quality of Life of Preschool Children. Asia Pac J Public Health. 2012;26(3):285-94.
42. Pine CM. An investigation of the relationship between untreated decayed teeth and dental sepsis in 5-year-old children. Br Dent J. 2006;200(1):45-7.
43. Anderson HK, Drummond BK, Thomson WM. Changes in aspects of children's oral-health-related quality of life following dental treatment under general anaesthesia. Int J Paediatr Dent. 2004;14(5):317-25.
44. White H, Lee JY, Vann WF Jr. Parental evaluation of quality of life measures following pediatric dental treatment using general anesthesia. Anesth Prog. 2003;50(3):105-10.
45. Bugis BA. Early childhood caries and the impact of current u.s. Medicaid program: an overview. Int J Dent. 2012;2012:348237.
46. Baggio S, Abarca M, Bodenmann P, Gehri M, Madrid C. Early childhood caries in Switzerland: a marker of social inequalities. BMC Oral Health. 2015;Jul 22;15:82. .
47. Do LG, Spencer AJ, Slade GD, Ha DH, Roberts-Thomson KF, Liu P. Trend of income-related inequality of child oral health in Australia. J Dent Res. 2010; 89(9):959-64.
48. Wyne A, Darwish S, Adenubi J, Battata S, Khan N. The prevalence and pattern of nursing caries in Saudi preschool children. Int J Paediatr Dent. 2001;11(5):361-4.
49. Rosenblatt A, Zarzar P. The prevalence of early childhood caries in 12- to 36-month-old children in Recife, Brazil. ASDC J Dent Child. 2002;69(3):319-24, 236.
50. Nomura Y, Tsuge S, Hayashi M, Sasaki M, Yamauchi T, Ueda N, et al. A survey on the risk factors for the prevalence of dental caries among preschool children in Japan. Pediatric Dental Journal. 2004;14(1):79-85.
51. Peressini S, Leake JL, Mayhall JT, Maar M, Trudeau R. Prevalence of early childhood caries among First Nations children, District of Manitoulin, Ontario. Int J Paediatr Dent. 2004;14(2):101-10.
52. Skeie MS, Espelid I, Skaare AB, Gimmestad A. Caries patterns in an urban preschool population in Norway. Eur J Paediatr Dent. 2005;6(1):16-22.
53. Ferreira SH, Beria JU, Kramer PF, Feldens EG, Feldens CA. Dental caries in 0- to 5-year-old Brazilian children: prevalence, severity, and associated factors. Int J Paediatr Dent. 2007;17(4):289-96.
54. Schroth RJ, Cheba V. Determining the prevalence and risk factors for early childhood caries in a community dental health clinic. Pediatr Dent. 2007;29(5):387-96.
55. Hugoson A, Koch G, Helkimo AN, Lundin SA. Caries prevalence and distribution in individuals aged 3-20 years in Jönköping, Sweden, over a 3-year period (1973-2003). Int J Paediatr Dent. 2008;18(1):18-26.
56. Postma TC, Ayo-Yusuf OA, van Wyk PJ. Socio-demographic correlates of early childhood caries prevalence and severity in a developing country--South Africa. Int Dent J. 2008;58(2):91-7.
57. Valencia-Rojas N, Lawrence HP, Goodman D. Prevalence of early childhood caries in a population of children with history of maltreatment. J Public Health Dent. 2008;68(2):94-101.
58. Nunn ME, Dietrich T, Singh HK, Henshaw MM, Kressin NR. Prevalence of early childhood caries among very young urban Boston children compared with US children. J Public Health Dent. 2009;69(3):156-62.
59. Prakash P, Subramaniam P, Durgesh BH, Konde S. Prevalence of early childhood caries and associated risk factors in preschool children of urban Bangalore, India: A cross-sectional study. Eur J Dent. 2012;6(2):141-52.
60. Hong CH, Bagramian RA, Hashim Nainar SM, Straffon LH, Shen L, Hsu CY. High caries prevalence and risk factors among young preschool children in an urban community with water fluoridation. Int J Paediatr Dent. 2014;24(1):32-42.
61. Monaghan N, Davies GM, Jones CM, Neville JS, Pitts NB. The caries experience of 5-year-old children in Scotland, Wales and England in 2011-2012: reports of cross-sectional surveys using BASCD criteria. Community Dent Health. 2014;31:105-10.
62. Hallett KB, O'Rourke PK. Pattern and severity of early childhoos caries. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 2006;34(1):25-35.
63. Kaste LM, Drury TF, Horowitz AM, Beltran E. An evaluation of NHANES III estimates of early childhood caries. J Public Health Dent. 1999;59(3):198-200.
64. Reisine S, Douglass JM. Psychosocial and behavioral issues in early childhood caries. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 1998;26(1 Suppl):32-44.
65. Ismail AI. Prevention of early childhood caries. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 1998;26(1 Suppl):49-61.
66. Low W, Tan S, Schwartz S. The effect of severe caries on the quality of life in young children. Pediatr Dent. 1999;21(6):325-6.