Current Therapy for Severe Head Injury : Controversy and Limitation
Abstract
Head injury is a worldwide leading cause of morbidity and mortality particularly among people who are under the age of 45.1,2 Care of these patients consumes considerable resources and the expense is very high. Acute hospitalization that costs annually at least $40 billion in the United States is only a small fraction of the total expenditure and does not include rehabilitation and loss of productivity.3
References
1 . Fonlkes MA, Eisenberg HM, Jane JA et al. The traumatic coma Data Bank: design, methods and baseline characteristics. J Neurosurg 1991; 75:s8-s13.
2. Jennett B, Frankowske RF. The epidemiology of head injury. In: Vinken PJ, Bruyn GW, Klawans HL, eds. Head injury. Elsevier Science Publishers BV Amsterdam 1990:1-16.
3. Bennett BR, Jacobs LM, Schwartz RJ. Incidence, cost and DRG-based reimbursement for traumatic brain injured patients: A 3-year experience. J Trauma 1989; 29:556-65.
4. Becker DP, Miller JD, Ward JD, et al. The outcome from severe head injury with early diagnosis and intensive management. J Neurosurg 1977;47:491-502.
5. Bower SA, Marshall LF. Out come in 200 consecutive cases of severe injury treated in San Diego County: A prospective analysis. Neurosurgery 1980; 6:237-44.
6. Marshall LF, Gautille T, Klauker MR, et al. The outcome of severe head injury. J Neurosurg 1991; 75:s28-s36.
7. Eisenberg HM, Frankowski RF, Contant CF, et al. High-dose barbiturate control of elevated intracranial pressure in patients with severe head injury. J Neurosurg 1988;69:15-23.
8. Luerssen TG, Marshall LF. The medical management of head injury. In:Vinken PJ. Bruyn GW, Klawans HL, Brankman R., eds. Handbookofclinical neurology V.57 "Head injury" Elsevier Science
Publishers, Amsterdam. 1990:207-48.
9. Miller JD, Dearden NM. Management of brain edema in head injury. In: Takeshita H, Siesjo BK, Miller JD, eds. Advance in Brain Resuscitation. Springer-Verlag. Tokyo 1990:3-19.
10. Durward QJ, Amacher AL, Del Maestro RF, et al. Cerebral and cardiovascular responses to changes head elevation in patients with intracranial hypertension. J Neurosurg 1983; 59:938-44.
11. Rosner MJ, Coley IB. Cerebral perfusion pressure, intracranial pressure, and head elevation. J Neurosurg 1986; 65:636-41.
12. Feldman Z, Kanter MJ, Robertson CS, et al. Effect of head elevation on intracranial pressure cerebral perfusion pressure, and cerebral blood flow in head-injured patients. J Neurosurg 1992;76:207-11.
13. Schneider GH, Helden AV, Franke R, et al. Influence of body position on jugular venous oxygen saturation, intracranial pressure and cerebral perfusion pressure. Acta Neurochir (Suppl) 1993;59:107-12.
14. Hulme A, Coope R. The effects of head position and jugalar vein compression (JVC) on intracranial pressure (ICP): a clinical study. In: Beks JWF, Bosch DA, Brock M, eds. Intracranial Pressure IlI, Berlin, springer-Verlag 1976:259-63.
15. Becker DP, Gade GF, Young HF, Feuerman TF. Diagnosis and treatment of head injury in adults. In: Youman JR, ed. Neurological Surgery 3rd ed. Philadelphia: WB Saudners, 1990:2017-149.
16. Hinds CJ. Intensive care. A concise textbook. London: Baillere Tindall 1987:254.
17. Mclaurin RL, Towbrin R. Diagnosis and treatment of head injury in infants and children. In: Youman JR, ed. Neurological Surgery 3rd. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1990:2149-93.
18. Saul TG. Acute head injury in adults. In: Rakel RE, ed. Conn's current therapy. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1987:776-81.
19. Cold GE. Cerebral blood flow in acute head injury. Acta Neurochir (Suppl) 1990:9-10.
20. Gordon E, Rossanda M. Further studies on cerebrospinal fluid acid-base status in patients with brain lesions. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1970; 75:731-9.
21. Christensen MS. Prolong artificial hyperventilation in cerebral apoplexy. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand (Suppl) 1976;62:7-24.
22. Muizelaar JP, Marmarou A, Ward JD, et al. Adverse effects of prolonged hyperventilation in patients with severe head injury a randomized clinical trial. J Neurosurg 1991; 75:731-9.
23. Bozza MM, Maspes PE, Rossanda M. The control of brain volume and tension during operation. Br J Anaesth 1961; 31:132-47.
24. Miller JD. Brain resuscitation: a Clinical perspective. In: Takeshita H, Siesjo BK, Miller JD, Advance in Brain Resuscitation. Springer-verlag. Tokyo:1990:315-324.
25. Muizelaar JP. Cerebral Ischemia-Reperfusion injury after severe head injury and its possible treatment with poly Ethyleneglycol- superoxide dismutase. Ann Emerg Med 1993; 22:1014-21.
26. Meixenberger J, Dings J, Kuhnigh H, Rossen K. Studies of tissue PO2 in Normal and pathological human brain cortex. Acta Neurochir 1993 (suppl)59-58-63.
27. Muizelaar JP, van Der Poel HG, Li Z, et al. Pial asteriolar vessel diameter and CO2 reactivity during prolonged hyperventilation in the rabbit. J Neurosurg 1988; 69:923-7.
28. Jennelt B. Epilepsy and acute traumatic intracranial hematoma. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiaty 1975; 38:378-81.
29. Lassen NA. Control of cerebral circulation in health and disease. Cir Res 1974;34:749-60.
30. Gade GF, Becker DP, Miller JD, Dwan PS. Pathology and pathophysiology of head injury. In: Youmasn JR, ed. Neurological surgery 3rd ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1990:1999.
31. Narayan RK, Head injury. In: Grossman RG, Hamilton WJ, eds. Principle of Neurosurgery. Raven Press, New York: 1991:235-92.
32. Temkin NR, Dikmen SS, Wilensky AJ, et al. A randomized, doubleblind study of phenytoin for the prevention of post-traumatic seizures. N Engl J Med 1990; 323-497-502.
33. Morse ML, Milstein JM, Haas JE, Jaylor E. Effect of hydration on experimentally induced cerebral edema. Crit Care Med 1985; 13:563-5.
34. Shackford SR. Fluid resuscitation in head injury. J Intensive Care Med 1990;5:59-68.
35. Cold GE. Cerebral blood flow in acute head injury. Acta Neurochir (suppl) 1990;49-43.
36. Rosner MJ, Daughton S. cerebral perfusion pressure Management in head injury. J Trauma 1990; 30:933-41.
37. Wood JH, Simeone FA, Fink EA, Golden MA. Hypervolemic hemodilution in experimental focal cerebral ischemia. J Neurosurg 1983;59:500-9.
38. Prough DS. Fluid resuscitation in head-injured patients. Unresolved issues. J Intensive Care Med 1990; 5:53-6.
39. Kee DB Jr, Wood JH. Rheology of the cerebral circulation. Neurosurgery 1983; 15:125-31.
40. Wood JH, Fleischer AS. Observations during hypervolemic hemodilution of patients with acute focal cerebral ischemia. JAMA 1982;248:2999-3004.
41. Toole JF. Cerebrovascular disorder, 4th ed. Raven Press, New York:1990:296.
42. Muizelaar JP, Lutz HA |I, Becker DP. Effect of mannitol on intracranial pressure and cerebral blood flow and correlation with pressure autoregualation in severely head-injured patients. J Neurosurg 1984; 61:700-6.
43. Rosner MJ, Coley I. Cerebral perfusion pressure: A hemodynamic mechanism of mannitol and the post mannitol hemogram. Neurosurgery 1987; 21:147-56.
44. Johnston IH, Harper AM. The effect of mannitol on cerebral blood flow. J Neurosurg 1973; 38:461-71.
45. Ravussin P, Chiolero R, Buchser E, et al. CSF pressure changes following mannitol in patients undergoing craniotomy. Anesthesiology 1986;65:A303.
46. Bell BA, Symon L, Branston NM. CBF and time thresholds for the formation of ischemic cerebral edema and effect of reperfusion in baboons. J Neurosurg 1989; 62:31-41.
47. James HE. Methodology for the control of intracranial pressure with hypertonic mannitol. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 1980; 51:161-72.
48. Marshall LF, Smith RW, Rauscher LA, et al. Mannitol dose requirements in brain-injured patients. J Neurosurg 1978; 48:169-72.
49. Becker DP, Vries JK. The alleviation of increased intracranial pressure by the chronic administration of osmotic agents. In: Brock M, Dietz H, eds. Intracranial pressure. Springer, Berlin 1972:309-15.
50. Cold GE. Cerebral blood flow in acute head injury. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 1990;49(Suppl):16-8.
51. Miller JD. Brain resuscitation: A clinical perspective in: Takeskita H, Siesjork, Miller JD. Advance in Brain Resuscitation. Springer-Verlag, Tokyo 1990:315-24.
52. Chiolero RL, Tribolet N, de Sedatives and antagonists in the management of severely head-injured patients. Acta Neurochir 1992;55 (suppl):43-6.
53. Fessler RD, Diaz FG. The management of cerebral perfusion pressure and intracranial pressure after severe head injury. Ann Emerg Med 1993; 22:989-1003.
54. Ward JD, Becker DP, Miller JD, et al. Failure of prophylactic barbiturate coma in the treatment of severe head injury. J Neurosurg 1985; 62:383-8.
55. Sarabia R, Lobato RD, Rivar JJ, et al. Cerebral hemisphere swelling in severe head injury patients. Acta Neurochir 1988; 42(suppl):40-6.
56. Becker DP, Gade GF, Young HF, Feurman TF. Diagnosis and treatment of head injury in adults. In: Youman JR, ed. Neurological surgery. 3rd ed. Philaelphia: WB Saunders, 1990:2017-148.
57. Miller JD, Piper IR, Dearden NM. Management of intracranial hypertension in head injury: Matching Treatment with cause. Acta Neurochir 1993; 57 (suppl):152-9.
58. Steiger HJ, Aaslid R, Stoss R, Seiler RW. Transcranial doppler monitoring in head injury: Relations between type of injury, flow velocities, vasoreactivity and outcome. Neurosurgery 1994;34:79-86.
59. Marshall LF, Marshall SB. Medical management of intracranial pressure. In: Cooper PR. head injury. 2nd ed. William Wilkins, Baltimore: 1987:177-96.
60. Papazian L, Albanese J, Thirion X, Perrin G, et al. Effect of bolus doses of midazolam on in tracranial pressure and cerebral perfusion pressure in patients with severe head injury. Br J An Aesth 1993;71(2):267-71.
61. Sahuquillo J, Poca MA, Garnacho A, et al. Early ischemia after severe head injury: Preliminary result in patients with diffuse brain injuries. Acta Neurochir (Wein) 1993;122:204-14.
62. Graham DI, Ford DI, Adam JH, et al. Ischemid brain damage is still common in fatal non-missile head injury. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1989; 52:436-50.
63. Dearden NM. Jugular bulb venous oxygen saturation in the management of severe head injury. Cur Opinion Anasesthesiol 1991;4:279-86.
64. Gilbert J. Estmiation of cerebral blood flow by cerebral venous oxygen difference, J Neurosurg 1989; 71:790-1. (letter)
65. Robertson CS, Narayan RK, Gokaslan ZL, et al. Cerebral arteriovenous oxygen difference as an estimate of cerebral blood flow in comatose patients. J Neurosurg 1989; 70:222-30.
66. Awad IA, Carter LP, Spetzler RF, et al. Clinical vasospasm after subarachnoid hemorrhage: response to hypervolemic hemodilution and arterial hypertension. Stroke 1987; 18:365-72.
67. Bouma GJ, Muitzelaar JP, Bandoh K, Marmarou A. Blood pressure and intracranial pressure-volume dynamics in severe head injury: relationship with cerebral blood flow. J Neurosurg 1992;77:15-9.
68. Schrader H, Lafgren J, Zwetnow NN. Influence of blood pressure on tolerance to an intracranial expanding man. Acta Neurol Scan 1985;71:114-26.
69. Prough DS. Fluid resuscitation in head-injured patients: unresolved issues J Intensive Care Med 1990; 5:153-6.
70. Dearden NM, Midgley S. Technical considerations in continuous jugular venous oxygen saturation measurement. Acta Neurochir (Suppl) 1993;59:91-7.
71. Sheminberg M, Kanter MJ, Robertson CS, Contant CF, et al. Continuous monitoring of jugular venous oxygen saturation in head injured patients. J Neurosurg 1992; 76:212-7.
72. von Helden A, Schneider GH, Uniterberg A, Lanksch WR. Monitoring of jugular venous saturation in comatose patients with subarachnoid haemorrhage and intracerebral haematomas. Acta Neurochir (suppl) 1993;59:102-6.
73. Robertson C. Desaturation episodes after severe head injury: Influence on outcome. Acta Neurochir (suppl) 1993:98-101.
74. Kety S, Schmidt CF. The nitrous oxide method for the guantitative determination of cerebral blood flow in man, theory, procedure and normal values. J Clin Invest 1948: 27:476-83.
2. Jennett B, Frankowske RF. The epidemiology of head injury. In: Vinken PJ, Bruyn GW, Klawans HL, eds. Head injury. Elsevier Science Publishers BV Amsterdam 1990:1-16.
3. Bennett BR, Jacobs LM, Schwartz RJ. Incidence, cost and DRG-based reimbursement for traumatic brain injured patients: A 3-year experience. J Trauma 1989; 29:556-65.
4. Becker DP, Miller JD, Ward JD, et al. The outcome from severe head injury with early diagnosis and intensive management. J Neurosurg 1977;47:491-502.
5. Bower SA, Marshall LF. Out come in 200 consecutive cases of severe injury treated in San Diego County: A prospective analysis. Neurosurgery 1980; 6:237-44.
6. Marshall LF, Gautille T, Klauker MR, et al. The outcome of severe head injury. J Neurosurg 1991; 75:s28-s36.
7. Eisenberg HM, Frankowski RF, Contant CF, et al. High-dose barbiturate control of elevated intracranial pressure in patients with severe head injury. J Neurosurg 1988;69:15-23.
8. Luerssen TG, Marshall LF. The medical management of head injury. In:Vinken PJ. Bruyn GW, Klawans HL, Brankman R., eds. Handbookofclinical neurology V.57 "Head injury" Elsevier Science
Publishers, Amsterdam. 1990:207-48.
9. Miller JD, Dearden NM. Management of brain edema in head injury. In: Takeshita H, Siesjo BK, Miller JD, eds. Advance in Brain Resuscitation. Springer-Verlag. Tokyo 1990:3-19.
10. Durward QJ, Amacher AL, Del Maestro RF, et al. Cerebral and cardiovascular responses to changes head elevation in patients with intracranial hypertension. J Neurosurg 1983; 59:938-44.
11. Rosner MJ, Coley IB. Cerebral perfusion pressure, intracranial pressure, and head elevation. J Neurosurg 1986; 65:636-41.
12. Feldman Z, Kanter MJ, Robertson CS, et al. Effect of head elevation on intracranial pressure cerebral perfusion pressure, and cerebral blood flow in head-injured patients. J Neurosurg 1992;76:207-11.
13. Schneider GH, Helden AV, Franke R, et al. Influence of body position on jugular venous oxygen saturation, intracranial pressure and cerebral perfusion pressure. Acta Neurochir (Suppl) 1993;59:107-12.
14. Hulme A, Coope R. The effects of head position and jugalar vein compression (JVC) on intracranial pressure (ICP): a clinical study. In: Beks JWF, Bosch DA, Brock M, eds. Intracranial Pressure IlI, Berlin, springer-Verlag 1976:259-63.
15. Becker DP, Gade GF, Young HF, Feuerman TF. Diagnosis and treatment of head injury in adults. In: Youman JR, ed. Neurological Surgery 3rd ed. Philadelphia: WB Saudners, 1990:2017-149.
16. Hinds CJ. Intensive care. A concise textbook. London: Baillere Tindall 1987:254.
17. Mclaurin RL, Towbrin R. Diagnosis and treatment of head injury in infants and children. In: Youman JR, ed. Neurological Surgery 3rd. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1990:2149-93.
18. Saul TG. Acute head injury in adults. In: Rakel RE, ed. Conn's current therapy. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1987:776-81.
19. Cold GE. Cerebral blood flow in acute head injury. Acta Neurochir (Suppl) 1990:9-10.
20. Gordon E, Rossanda M. Further studies on cerebrospinal fluid acid-base status in patients with brain lesions. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1970; 75:731-9.
21. Christensen MS. Prolong artificial hyperventilation in cerebral apoplexy. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand (Suppl) 1976;62:7-24.
22. Muizelaar JP, Marmarou A, Ward JD, et al. Adverse effects of prolonged hyperventilation in patients with severe head injury a randomized clinical trial. J Neurosurg 1991; 75:731-9.
23. Bozza MM, Maspes PE, Rossanda M. The control of brain volume and tension during operation. Br J Anaesth 1961; 31:132-47.
24. Miller JD. Brain resuscitation: a Clinical perspective. In: Takeshita H, Siesjo BK, Miller JD, Advance in Brain Resuscitation. Springer-verlag. Tokyo:1990:315-324.
25. Muizelaar JP. Cerebral Ischemia-Reperfusion injury after severe head injury and its possible treatment with poly Ethyleneglycol- superoxide dismutase. Ann Emerg Med 1993; 22:1014-21.
26. Meixenberger J, Dings J, Kuhnigh H, Rossen K. Studies of tissue PO2 in Normal and pathological human brain cortex. Acta Neurochir 1993 (suppl)59-58-63.
27. Muizelaar JP, van Der Poel HG, Li Z, et al. Pial asteriolar vessel diameter and CO2 reactivity during prolonged hyperventilation in the rabbit. J Neurosurg 1988; 69:923-7.
28. Jennelt B. Epilepsy and acute traumatic intracranial hematoma. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiaty 1975; 38:378-81.
29. Lassen NA. Control of cerebral circulation in health and disease. Cir Res 1974;34:749-60.
30. Gade GF, Becker DP, Miller JD, Dwan PS. Pathology and pathophysiology of head injury. In: Youmasn JR, ed. Neurological surgery 3rd ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1990:1999.
31. Narayan RK, Head injury. In: Grossman RG, Hamilton WJ, eds. Principle of Neurosurgery. Raven Press, New York: 1991:235-92.
32. Temkin NR, Dikmen SS, Wilensky AJ, et al. A randomized, doubleblind study of phenytoin for the prevention of post-traumatic seizures. N Engl J Med 1990; 323-497-502.
33. Morse ML, Milstein JM, Haas JE, Jaylor E. Effect of hydration on experimentally induced cerebral edema. Crit Care Med 1985; 13:563-5.
34. Shackford SR. Fluid resuscitation in head injury. J Intensive Care Med 1990;5:59-68.
35. Cold GE. Cerebral blood flow in acute head injury. Acta Neurochir (suppl) 1990;49-43.
36. Rosner MJ, Daughton S. cerebral perfusion pressure Management in head injury. J Trauma 1990; 30:933-41.
37. Wood JH, Simeone FA, Fink EA, Golden MA. Hypervolemic hemodilution in experimental focal cerebral ischemia. J Neurosurg 1983;59:500-9.
38. Prough DS. Fluid resuscitation in head-injured patients. Unresolved issues. J Intensive Care Med 1990; 5:53-6.
39. Kee DB Jr, Wood JH. Rheology of the cerebral circulation. Neurosurgery 1983; 15:125-31.
40. Wood JH, Fleischer AS. Observations during hypervolemic hemodilution of patients with acute focal cerebral ischemia. JAMA 1982;248:2999-3004.
41. Toole JF. Cerebrovascular disorder, 4th ed. Raven Press, New York:1990:296.
42. Muizelaar JP, Lutz HA |I, Becker DP. Effect of mannitol on intracranial pressure and cerebral blood flow and correlation with pressure autoregualation in severely head-injured patients. J Neurosurg 1984; 61:700-6.
43. Rosner MJ, Coley I. Cerebral perfusion pressure: A hemodynamic mechanism of mannitol and the post mannitol hemogram. Neurosurgery 1987; 21:147-56.
44. Johnston IH, Harper AM. The effect of mannitol on cerebral blood flow. J Neurosurg 1973; 38:461-71.
45. Ravussin P, Chiolero R, Buchser E, et al. CSF pressure changes following mannitol in patients undergoing craniotomy. Anesthesiology 1986;65:A303.
46. Bell BA, Symon L, Branston NM. CBF and time thresholds for the formation of ischemic cerebral edema and effect of reperfusion in baboons. J Neurosurg 1989; 62:31-41.
47. James HE. Methodology for the control of intracranial pressure with hypertonic mannitol. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 1980; 51:161-72.
48. Marshall LF, Smith RW, Rauscher LA, et al. Mannitol dose requirements in brain-injured patients. J Neurosurg 1978; 48:169-72.
49. Becker DP, Vries JK. The alleviation of increased intracranial pressure by the chronic administration of osmotic agents. In: Brock M, Dietz H, eds. Intracranial pressure. Springer, Berlin 1972:309-15.
50. Cold GE. Cerebral blood flow in acute head injury. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 1990;49(Suppl):16-8.
51. Miller JD. Brain resuscitation: A clinical perspective in: Takeskita H, Siesjork, Miller JD. Advance in Brain Resuscitation. Springer-Verlag, Tokyo 1990:315-24.
52. Chiolero RL, Tribolet N, de Sedatives and antagonists in the management of severely head-injured patients. Acta Neurochir 1992;55 (suppl):43-6.
53. Fessler RD, Diaz FG. The management of cerebral perfusion pressure and intracranial pressure after severe head injury. Ann Emerg Med 1993; 22:989-1003.
54. Ward JD, Becker DP, Miller JD, et al. Failure of prophylactic barbiturate coma in the treatment of severe head injury. J Neurosurg 1985; 62:383-8.
55. Sarabia R, Lobato RD, Rivar JJ, et al. Cerebral hemisphere swelling in severe head injury patients. Acta Neurochir 1988; 42(suppl):40-6.
56. Becker DP, Gade GF, Young HF, Feurman TF. Diagnosis and treatment of head injury in adults. In: Youman JR, ed. Neurological surgery. 3rd ed. Philaelphia: WB Saunders, 1990:2017-148.
57. Miller JD, Piper IR, Dearden NM. Management of intracranial hypertension in head injury: Matching Treatment with cause. Acta Neurochir 1993; 57 (suppl):152-9.
58. Steiger HJ, Aaslid R, Stoss R, Seiler RW. Transcranial doppler monitoring in head injury: Relations between type of injury, flow velocities, vasoreactivity and outcome. Neurosurgery 1994;34:79-86.
59. Marshall LF, Marshall SB. Medical management of intracranial pressure. In: Cooper PR. head injury. 2nd ed. William Wilkins, Baltimore: 1987:177-96.
60. Papazian L, Albanese J, Thirion X, Perrin G, et al. Effect of bolus doses of midazolam on in tracranial pressure and cerebral perfusion pressure in patients with severe head injury. Br J An Aesth 1993;71(2):267-71.
61. Sahuquillo J, Poca MA, Garnacho A, et al. Early ischemia after severe head injury: Preliminary result in patients with diffuse brain injuries. Acta Neurochir (Wein) 1993;122:204-14.
62. Graham DI, Ford DI, Adam JH, et al. Ischemid brain damage is still common in fatal non-missile head injury. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1989; 52:436-50.
63. Dearden NM. Jugular bulb venous oxygen saturation in the management of severe head injury. Cur Opinion Anasesthesiol 1991;4:279-86.
64. Gilbert J. Estmiation of cerebral blood flow by cerebral venous oxygen difference, J Neurosurg 1989; 71:790-1. (letter)
65. Robertson CS, Narayan RK, Gokaslan ZL, et al. Cerebral arteriovenous oxygen difference as an estimate of cerebral blood flow in comatose patients. J Neurosurg 1989; 70:222-30.
66. Awad IA, Carter LP, Spetzler RF, et al. Clinical vasospasm after subarachnoid hemorrhage: response to hypervolemic hemodilution and arterial hypertension. Stroke 1987; 18:365-72.
67. Bouma GJ, Muitzelaar JP, Bandoh K, Marmarou A. Blood pressure and intracranial pressure-volume dynamics in severe head injury: relationship with cerebral blood flow. J Neurosurg 1992;77:15-9.
68. Schrader H, Lafgren J, Zwetnow NN. Influence of blood pressure on tolerance to an intracranial expanding man. Acta Neurol Scan 1985;71:114-26.
69. Prough DS. Fluid resuscitation in head-injured patients: unresolved issues J Intensive Care Med 1990; 5:153-6.
70. Dearden NM, Midgley S. Technical considerations in continuous jugular venous oxygen saturation measurement. Acta Neurochir (Suppl) 1993;59:91-7.
71. Sheminberg M, Kanter MJ, Robertson CS, Contant CF, et al. Continuous monitoring of jugular venous oxygen saturation in head injured patients. J Neurosurg 1992; 76:212-7.
72. von Helden A, Schneider GH, Uniterberg A, Lanksch WR. Monitoring of jugular venous saturation in comatose patients with subarachnoid haemorrhage and intracerebral haematomas. Acta Neurochir (suppl) 1993;59:102-6.
73. Robertson C. Desaturation episodes after severe head injury: Influence on outcome. Acta Neurochir (suppl) 1993:98-101.
74. Kety S, Schmidt CF. The nitrous oxide method for the guantitative determination of cerebral blood flow in man, theory, procedure and normal values. J Clin Invest 1948: 27:476-83.
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1995-06-30
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Ratanalert S. Current Therapy for Severe Head Injury : Controversy and Limitation. Thai J Surg [Internet]. 1995 Jun. 30 [cited 2024 Nov. 23];16(1):12-9. Available from: https://he02.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/ThaiJSurg/article/view/250191
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