Acceptance of Cosmetic Surgery and Self-esteem among University Students
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Published:
Mar 26, 2019
Keywords:
Acceptance of Cosmetic Surgery, Self-esteem, University Students
Main Article Content
Abstract
The objective of this research is to compare the acceptance of cosmetic surgery and self-esteem between university students who have different genders and academic years. Moreover, the research aims to predict the acceptance of cosmetic surgery from 4 variables; self-esteem, age, grade point average and a monthly expense. The participants are 391 undergraduate students. The research instrument is a five-point Likert scale. The statistics used for data analysis are one-way ANOVA followed with multiple comparison test by Scheffé’s method and stepwise multiple regression analysis. The research’s result found that 1) students with different genders and academic years have a statistically significant difference only in self-esteem (F=17.44/F=13.57) but not difference in the acceptance of cosmetic surgery and 2) self-esteem is the only predictor variable that has negative regression coefficient with statistical significance at the .01 level. The variance of the acceptance of cosmetic surgery is 3.60 percent.
Article Details
Section
Humanities, Social Sciences, and Arts
References
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Aghte, M., Spörrle, M., & Maner. (2010). “Don’t hate me because I’m beautiful: Antiractiveness bias in organizational evolution and decisions making”, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46(6). 1151–1154.
American Academy of Facial Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. (2017). 2004 membership survey: trends in facial plastic surgery. Retrieved on 20 August, 2017 from https://www.aafprs.org/media/stats_polls/AAFP RSMEDIA2005.pdf.
American Society for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery. (2015a). ASAPS statistics. Retrieved on 20 August, 2017 from https://www.surgery.org/sites/default/files/ASAPS-Stats2015.pdf
American Society for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery. (2015b). Cosmetic Procedures. Retrieved on 20 August, 2017 from https://www.plasticsurgery.org/cosmetic-procedures html.
American Society for Plastic Surgeons. (2008). Procedural statistics trends, 2000–2007. Retrieved on 20 August, 2017 form https://www.plasticsurgery.org/news/plastic- surgery-statistics?sub=2008+Plastic+Surgery+Statistics
Bargh, J. A, & McKenna, K. Y. A. (2004). “The internet and social life”. Annual Review of Psychology, 55. 573–590.
Bazner, J. (2002). “Attitudes About Cosmetic Surgery: Gender and Body Experience”. McNair Scholars Journal, 6(1). 10-16.
Bleidorn, W., Arslan, R. C., Denissen, J. J., Rentfrow, P. J., Gebauer, J. E., Potter, J., & Gosling, S. D. (2016). “Age and gender differences in self-esteem-A cross-cultural window”. J Pers Soc Psychol, 111(3). 396-410.
Brown, A., Furnham, A., Glanville, L., & Swami, V. (2007). “Factors that affect the likelihood of undergoing cosmetic surgery”. Aesthetic Surgery Journal, 27. 501-508.
Breuning, E., Oikonomou, D., Singh, P., Rai, J. K., & Mendonca, D. A. (2010). “Cosmetic surgery in the NHS: Applying local and national guidelines”. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg, 63. 1437-1442.
Campana, A., Ferreira, L., & Tavares, M. C. (2012). “Associations and differences between men and women on the acceptance of cosmetic plastic surgery in Brazil”. Rev Bras Cir Plást, 27(1). 108-114.
Cash, T. F., Goldenberg-Bivens, R. B., & Grasso, K. (2005). Multidimensional body image predictors of college women’s attitudes and intentions vis-a`-vis cosmetic surgery. Poster presented at the Conference of the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies Washington, DC.
Coca N. (2006). Low esteem and plastic surgery, Today's World, 9 Jan.
Coopersmith, S. (1967). “Parental characteristics related to self-esteem”. In The antecedents of self-esteem (chap. 6, pp. 96-117). San Francisco: Freeman.
Damrongpanit, S., Samuttai, R., Srisuk, K., Nguenuang, S., & Intanate, N. (2016). “The development of indicators for utilising portable electronic devices of the undergraduates”. The Social Sciences, 11(21). 5080-5089.
Delinsky, S. S. (2005). Cosmetic surgery: “A common and accepted form of self-improvement?”. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 35. 2012–2028.
Dockrill, P. (2016). “The Gap Between Men And Women's Self-Esteem Is Larger in Western Countries, Study Finds”. Retrieved on 5 September, 2017 form https://www.sciencealert.com/the-gap-between-men-and-women-s-self-esteem-is-larger-in-western-countries-study-finds.
Dorak, F. (2011). “Self-esteem and body image of Turkish adolescent girls”. Social Behavior & Personality: An International Journal, 39(4). 553-561.
Frederick, D. A., Lever, J., & Peplau, L. A. (2007). “Interest in cosmetic surgery and body image: Views of men and women across the lifespan”. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, 120. 1407-1415.
Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T. A. (1997). “Objectification theory: Toward understanding women’s lived experiences and mental health risks”. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21. 173-206.
Heatherton, T. F. & Polivy, J. (1991). “Development and validation of a scale for measuring state self-esteem”. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60. 895-910.
Henderson-King, D., & Brooks, K. D. (2009). “Materialism, sociocultural appearance messages, and parental attitudes predict college women’s attitudes about cosmetic surgery”. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 33. 133–142.
Henderson-King, D., & Henderson-King, E. (2005). “Acceptance of cosmetic surgery: scale development and validation”. Body Image, 2(2). 137–149.
Hendriks, A., & Burgoon, M. (2003). The Relationship between Fashion Magazine Consumption and Body Satisfaction in Women: Who is most at risk of influence?. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication Association. San Diego, CA.
International Society of Aesthetic Plastic Surgery. (2014). ISAPS International Survey on Aesthetic / Cosmetic Procedures Performed in 2013. Retrieved on 20 August, 2017 from https://www.isaps.org/Media/Default/global-statistics/2014 ISAPS Global Stat Results.pdf.
International Society of Aesthetic Plastic Surgery. (2016). ISAPS Global Statistics/statistics for 2016. Retrieved on 22 August, 2017 from https://www.isaps.org/Media /Default/Current%20News/GlobalStatistics2016.pdf
Judge T. A., & Bono, J. E. (2001). “Relationship of core self‐evaluations traits self‐esteem, generalized self‐efficacy, locus of control, and emotional stability with job satisfaction and job performance: a meta-analysis”. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(1). 80-92.
Kearney-Cooke, A. (1999). “Gender differences and self-esteem”. The Journal of Gender- Specific Medicine, 2(3). 46-52.
Kwon, M. (2009). Young male urbanites keen on cosmetic surgery. Retrieved on 23 August, 2017 from https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2009 /07/117_48982.html
Leary, M. R., & MacDonald, G. (2003). “Individual differences in self-esteem: A review and theoretical integration”. In M. R. Leary, & J. P. Tangney (Eds.), Handbook of self and identity (pp. 401–418). New York: Guilford Press.
Lenhart, A., Madden, M., & Hitlin, P. (2005). Teens and technology: You are leading the transition to a fully wired and mobile nation. Retrieved on 18 November, 2017 from www.pewInternet.org/pdfs/PIP_Teens_Tech_July2005web.pdf
Malekiha, M., & Abedi, M. R. (2012). “Personality, Self-esteem predictors of happiness and depression among High School Student in Iran”. Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business, 3(10). 569-580.
Mann, M., Hosman, C. M. H., Schaalma, H. P., & de Vries, N. K. (2004). “Self-esteem in a broad-spectrum approach for mental health promotion”. Theory & Practice, 19, 357-372.
Markey, C. N., & Markey, P. M. (2009). “Correlates of young women’s interest in obtaining cosmetic surgery”. Sex Roles, 61, 158–166.
McLeod, S. (2012). Low Self Esteem. Retrieved on 18 November, 2017 form https://www.simplypsychology.org/self-esteem.html.
Mikami, A. Y., Szwedo, D. E., Allen, J. P., Evans, M. A., & Hare, A. L. (2010). “Adolescent Peer Relationships and Behavior Problems Predict Young Adults' Communication on Social Networking Websites”. Developmental Psychology, 46(1). 46-56.
Mulkens, S., & Jansen, A. (2006). “Changing appearances: Cosmetic surgery and body dysmorphic disorder”. Netherlands Journal of Psychology, 62. 34–41.
Myers, R. (1992). The Twelve Who Survive, London, Routledge.
Noilert, T. (2013). Thai Adolescents’ Value and Cosmetic Surgery. Retrieved on 20 August, 2017 from https://sd-group1.blogspot.com/2013/01/53241943.html.
Pduraru, M. C. & Rcanu, R. (2013). “Body Scheme and Self-Esteem of Plastic Surgery Patients”. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 78. 355–359.
Ozel, B., Sezgin, B., Guney, K., Latifoglu, O., & Celebi, C. (2015). “A social evaluation of perception on body contouring surgery by Turkish male aesthetic surgery patients”. Aesthetic Plast Surg, 39(1). 124-128.
Pope, A. W., & McHales. (1988). Self-esteem enhancement in children and adolescents. Pergammon Press , New York.
Pruzinsky, T., & Cash, T. F. (2002). “Understanding body images: Historical and contemporary perspectives”. In T. F. Cash & T. Pruzinsky (Eds.), Body image: A handbook of theory, research, and clinical practice (pp. 3-12). New York: The Guilford Press.
Park, L. E., Calogero, R. M., Harwin, M. J., & DiRaddo, A. M. (2009). “Predicting interest in cosmetic surgery: Interactive effects of appearance-based rejection sensitivity and negative appearance comments”. Body Image, 6. 186–193.
Robins, R. W., Trzesniewski, K. H., Tracy, J. L., Gosling, S. D., & Potter, J. (2002). “Global self- esteem across the life span”. Psychology and Aging, 17. 423–434.
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press.
Rosenberg, M., & Owens, T. J. (2001). “Low self-esteem people: A collective portrait”. In T.J. Owens. S. Stryker, & N. Goodmanm (Eds.), Extending self-esteem theory and research (pp. 400-436). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Salehahmadi, Z., & Rafie, S. R. (2012). “Factors Affecting Patients Undergoing Cosmetic Surgery in Bushehr, Southern Iran”. World J Plast Surg, 1(2). 99–106.
Sarwer, D. B., Cash, T. F., Magee, L., Williams, E. F., Thompson, J. K., Roehrig, M., Tantleff-Dunn, S., Agliata, A. K., Wilfley, D. E., Amidon, A. D., Anderson, A. D. & Romanofski, M. (2005). “Female college student and cosmetic surgery: An investigation of experiences, attitudes, and body image”. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery,115(3), 931–938.
Sarwer, D. B., & Crerand, C. E. (2008). “Body dysmorphic disorder and appearance enhancing medical treatments”. Body Image, 5. 50–58.
Sarwer, D. B., Crerand, C. E., & Gibbons, L. M. (2007). “Cosmetic surgery to enhance body shape and muscularity”. In J. K. Thompson & G. Cafri (Eds.), The muscular ideal: Psychological social, and medical perspectives (pp.183–198). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Sarwer, D. B., LaRossa, D., Bartlett, S. P., Low, D. W., Bucky, L. P., & Whitaker, L. A. (2003). “Body image concerns of breast augmentation”. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, 112. 83–90.
Scanlon, C. (2005). The price of beauty in South Korea. BBC News. Retrieved on 23 August, 2017 from https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_ correspondent/4229995.stm
Sharp, G., Tiggemann, M., & Mattiske, J. (2014). “The role of media and peer influences in Australian women's attitudes towards cosmetic surgery”. Body Image, 11(4). 482- 487.
Sheffield, J. K., Tse, K. H., & Sofronoff, K. (2005). “A comparison of body-image dissatisfaction and eating disturbance among Australian and Hong Kong women”. European Eating Disorders Review, 13. 112-124.
Sheldon, K. M., & Houser-Marko, L. (2001), “Self-concordance, goal attainment, and the pursuit of happiness: can there be an upward spiral?”. Journal of Personality and Psychology, 80. 152-165.
Shepeliak, N. (2006). “Gender and Cultural Differences in Body Dissatisfaction and Self-esteem”. Honors College Theses. Paper 35.
Souri, R., & Porjorat, M. (2017). “Relationship between Cosmetic Surgery and Psychological Variables”. Acta Medica International, 4(1). 96-100.
Sperry, S., Thompson, J. K., Sarwer, D. B., & Cash, T. F. (2009). “Cosmetic surgery reality TV viewership: Relations with cosmetic surgery attitudes, body image, and disordered eating”. Annals of Plastic Surgery, 62. 7–11.
Swami, V. (2009). “Body appreciation, media influence, and weight status predict consideration of cosmetic surgery among female undergraduates”. Body Image, 6. 315-317.
Swami, V., Arteche, A., Chamorro-Premuzic, T., Furnham, A., Stieger, S., Haubner, T. & Voracek, M. (2008). “Looking good: Factors affecting the likelihood of having cosmetic surgery”. European Journal of Plastic Surgery, 30. 211-218.
Swami, V., Campana, A. N. N. B., Ferreira, L., Barrett, S., Harris, A. S., & Tavares, M. D. C. G. C.F. (2011). “The acceptance of cosmetic surgery scale: initial examination of its factor structure and correlates among Brazilian adults”. Body Image, 8(2). 179–185.
Swami, V., Chamorro-Premuzic, T., Bridges, S., & Furnham, A. (2009). “Acceptance of cosmetic surgery: Personality and individual difference predictors”. Body Image, 6. 7–13.
Swami, V., Taylor, R., & Carvalho, C. (2009). “Acceptance of cosmetic surgery and celebrity worship: Evidence of associations among female undergraduates”. Personality and Individual Differences, 47. 869–872.
Tiggemann, M., & Miller, J. (2010). “The Internet and Adolescent Girls' Weight Satisfaction and Drive for Thinness”. Sex Roles, 63(1-2). 79-90.
Turkle, S. (2011). Alone Together: Why We Expect More from Technology and Less from Each Other. Basic Books, Inc. New York, NY, USA.
Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2001). “Age and birth cohort differences in self-esteem: A cross-temporal meta-analysis”. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5. 321–344.
Vesile, O., & Mustafa, Ş. (2010). “Examination of the relationship between the body image and self-esteem of female adolescents”. International Journal Of Human Sciences, 7(2). 543-556.
Aghte, M., Spörrle, M., & Maner. (2010). “Don’t hate me because I’m beautiful: Antiractiveness bias in organizational evolution and decisions making”, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46(6). 1151–1154.
American Academy of Facial Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. (2017). 2004 membership survey: trends in facial plastic surgery. Retrieved on 20 August, 2017 from https://www.aafprs.org/media/stats_polls/AAFP RSMEDIA2005.pdf.
American Society for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery. (2015a). ASAPS statistics. Retrieved on 20 August, 2017 from https://www.surgery.org/sites/default/files/ASAPS-Stats2015.pdf
American Society for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery. (2015b). Cosmetic Procedures. Retrieved on 20 August, 2017 from https://www.plasticsurgery.org/cosmetic-procedures html.
American Society for Plastic Surgeons. (2008). Procedural statistics trends, 2000–2007. Retrieved on 20 August, 2017 form https://www.plasticsurgery.org/news/plastic- surgery-statistics?sub=2008+Plastic+Surgery+Statistics
Bargh, J. A, & McKenna, K. Y. A. (2004). “The internet and social life”. Annual Review of Psychology, 55. 573–590.
Bazner, J. (2002). “Attitudes About Cosmetic Surgery: Gender and Body Experience”. McNair Scholars Journal, 6(1). 10-16.
Bleidorn, W., Arslan, R. C., Denissen, J. J., Rentfrow, P. J., Gebauer, J. E., Potter, J., & Gosling, S. D. (2016). “Age and gender differences in self-esteem-A cross-cultural window”. J Pers Soc Psychol, 111(3). 396-410.
Brown, A., Furnham, A., Glanville, L., & Swami, V. (2007). “Factors that affect the likelihood of undergoing cosmetic surgery”. Aesthetic Surgery Journal, 27. 501-508.
Breuning, E., Oikonomou, D., Singh, P., Rai, J. K., & Mendonca, D. A. (2010). “Cosmetic surgery in the NHS: Applying local and national guidelines”. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg, 63. 1437-1442.
Campana, A., Ferreira, L., & Tavares, M. C. (2012). “Associations and differences between men and women on the acceptance of cosmetic plastic surgery in Brazil”. Rev Bras Cir Plást, 27(1). 108-114.
Cash, T. F., Goldenberg-Bivens, R. B., & Grasso, K. (2005). Multidimensional body image predictors of college women’s attitudes and intentions vis-a`-vis cosmetic surgery. Poster presented at the Conference of the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies Washington, DC.
Coca N. (2006). Low esteem and plastic surgery, Today's World, 9 Jan.
Coopersmith, S. (1967). “Parental characteristics related to self-esteem”. In The antecedents of self-esteem (chap. 6, pp. 96-117). San Francisco: Freeman.
Damrongpanit, S., Samuttai, R., Srisuk, K., Nguenuang, S., & Intanate, N. (2016). “The development of indicators for utilising portable electronic devices of the undergraduates”. The Social Sciences, 11(21). 5080-5089.
Delinsky, S. S. (2005). Cosmetic surgery: “A common and accepted form of self-improvement?”. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 35. 2012–2028.
Dockrill, P. (2016). “The Gap Between Men And Women's Self-Esteem Is Larger in Western Countries, Study Finds”. Retrieved on 5 September, 2017 form https://www.sciencealert.com/the-gap-between-men-and-women-s-self-esteem-is-larger-in-western-countries-study-finds.
Dorak, F. (2011). “Self-esteem and body image of Turkish adolescent girls”. Social Behavior & Personality: An International Journal, 39(4). 553-561.
Frederick, D. A., Lever, J., & Peplau, L. A. (2007). “Interest in cosmetic surgery and body image: Views of men and women across the lifespan”. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, 120. 1407-1415.
Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T. A. (1997). “Objectification theory: Toward understanding women’s lived experiences and mental health risks”. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21. 173-206.
Heatherton, T. F. & Polivy, J. (1991). “Development and validation of a scale for measuring state self-esteem”. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60. 895-910.
Henderson-King, D., & Brooks, K. D. (2009). “Materialism, sociocultural appearance messages, and parental attitudes predict college women’s attitudes about cosmetic surgery”. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 33. 133–142.
Henderson-King, D., & Henderson-King, E. (2005). “Acceptance of cosmetic surgery: scale development and validation”. Body Image, 2(2). 137–149.
Hendriks, A., & Burgoon, M. (2003). The Relationship between Fashion Magazine Consumption and Body Satisfaction in Women: Who is most at risk of influence?. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication Association. San Diego, CA.
International Society of Aesthetic Plastic Surgery. (2014). ISAPS International Survey on Aesthetic / Cosmetic Procedures Performed in 2013. Retrieved on 20 August, 2017 from https://www.isaps.org/Media/Default/global-statistics/2014 ISAPS Global Stat Results.pdf.
International Society of Aesthetic Plastic Surgery. (2016). ISAPS Global Statistics/statistics for 2016. Retrieved on 22 August, 2017 from https://www.isaps.org/Media /Default/Current%20News/GlobalStatistics2016.pdf
Judge T. A., & Bono, J. E. (2001). “Relationship of core self‐evaluations traits self‐esteem, generalized self‐efficacy, locus of control, and emotional stability with job satisfaction and job performance: a meta-analysis”. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(1). 80-92.
Kearney-Cooke, A. (1999). “Gender differences and self-esteem”. The Journal of Gender- Specific Medicine, 2(3). 46-52.
Kwon, M. (2009). Young male urbanites keen on cosmetic surgery. Retrieved on 23 August, 2017 from https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2009 /07/117_48982.html
Leary, M. R., & MacDonald, G. (2003). “Individual differences in self-esteem: A review and theoretical integration”. In M. R. Leary, & J. P. Tangney (Eds.), Handbook of self and identity (pp. 401–418). New York: Guilford Press.
Lenhart, A., Madden, M., & Hitlin, P. (2005). Teens and technology: You are leading the transition to a fully wired and mobile nation. Retrieved on 18 November, 2017 from www.pewInternet.org/pdfs/PIP_Teens_Tech_July2005web.pdf
Malekiha, M., & Abedi, M. R. (2012). “Personality, Self-esteem predictors of happiness and depression among High School Student in Iran”. Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business, 3(10). 569-580.
Mann, M., Hosman, C. M. H., Schaalma, H. P., & de Vries, N. K. (2004). “Self-esteem in a broad-spectrum approach for mental health promotion”. Theory & Practice, 19, 357-372.
Markey, C. N., & Markey, P. M. (2009). “Correlates of young women’s interest in obtaining cosmetic surgery”. Sex Roles, 61, 158–166.
McLeod, S. (2012). Low Self Esteem. Retrieved on 18 November, 2017 form https://www.simplypsychology.org/self-esteem.html.
Mikami, A. Y., Szwedo, D. E., Allen, J. P., Evans, M. A., & Hare, A. L. (2010). “Adolescent Peer Relationships and Behavior Problems Predict Young Adults' Communication on Social Networking Websites”. Developmental Psychology, 46(1). 46-56.
Mulkens, S., & Jansen, A. (2006). “Changing appearances: Cosmetic surgery and body dysmorphic disorder”. Netherlands Journal of Psychology, 62. 34–41.
Myers, R. (1992). The Twelve Who Survive, London, Routledge.
Noilert, T. (2013). Thai Adolescents’ Value and Cosmetic Surgery. Retrieved on 20 August, 2017 from https://sd-group1.blogspot.com/2013/01/53241943.html.
Pduraru, M. C. & Rcanu, R. (2013). “Body Scheme and Self-Esteem of Plastic Surgery Patients”. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 78. 355–359.
Ozel, B., Sezgin, B., Guney, K., Latifoglu, O., & Celebi, C. (2015). “A social evaluation of perception on body contouring surgery by Turkish male aesthetic surgery patients”. Aesthetic Plast Surg, 39(1). 124-128.
Pope, A. W., & McHales. (1988). Self-esteem enhancement in children and adolescents. Pergammon Press , New York.
Pruzinsky, T., & Cash, T. F. (2002). “Understanding body images: Historical and contemporary perspectives”. In T. F. Cash & T. Pruzinsky (Eds.), Body image: A handbook of theory, research, and clinical practice (pp. 3-12). New York: The Guilford Press.
Park, L. E., Calogero, R. M., Harwin, M. J., & DiRaddo, A. M. (2009). “Predicting interest in cosmetic surgery: Interactive effects of appearance-based rejection sensitivity and negative appearance comments”. Body Image, 6. 186–193.
Robins, R. W., Trzesniewski, K. H., Tracy, J. L., Gosling, S. D., & Potter, J. (2002). “Global self- esteem across the life span”. Psychology and Aging, 17. 423–434.
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press.
Rosenberg, M., & Owens, T. J. (2001). “Low self-esteem people: A collective portrait”. In T.J. Owens. S. Stryker, & N. Goodmanm (Eds.), Extending self-esteem theory and research (pp. 400-436). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Salehahmadi, Z., & Rafie, S. R. (2012). “Factors Affecting Patients Undergoing Cosmetic Surgery in Bushehr, Southern Iran”. World J Plast Surg, 1(2). 99–106.
Sarwer, D. B., Cash, T. F., Magee, L., Williams, E. F., Thompson, J. K., Roehrig, M., Tantleff-Dunn, S., Agliata, A. K., Wilfley, D. E., Amidon, A. D., Anderson, A. D. & Romanofski, M. (2005). “Female college student and cosmetic surgery: An investigation of experiences, attitudes, and body image”. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery,115(3), 931–938.
Sarwer, D. B., & Crerand, C. E. (2008). “Body dysmorphic disorder and appearance enhancing medical treatments”. Body Image, 5. 50–58.
Sarwer, D. B., Crerand, C. E., & Gibbons, L. M. (2007). “Cosmetic surgery to enhance body shape and muscularity”. In J. K. Thompson & G. Cafri (Eds.), The muscular ideal: Psychological social, and medical perspectives (pp.183–198). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Sarwer, D. B., LaRossa, D., Bartlett, S. P., Low, D. W., Bucky, L. P., & Whitaker, L. A. (2003). “Body image concerns of breast augmentation”. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, 112. 83–90.
Scanlon, C. (2005). The price of beauty in South Korea. BBC News. Retrieved on 23 August, 2017 from https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_ correspondent/4229995.stm
Sharp, G., Tiggemann, M., & Mattiske, J. (2014). “The role of media and peer influences in Australian women's attitudes towards cosmetic surgery”. Body Image, 11(4). 482- 487.
Sheffield, J. K., Tse, K. H., & Sofronoff, K. (2005). “A comparison of body-image dissatisfaction and eating disturbance among Australian and Hong Kong women”. European Eating Disorders Review, 13. 112-124.
Sheldon, K. M., & Houser-Marko, L. (2001), “Self-concordance, goal attainment, and the pursuit of happiness: can there be an upward spiral?”. Journal of Personality and Psychology, 80. 152-165.
Shepeliak, N. (2006). “Gender and Cultural Differences in Body Dissatisfaction and Self-esteem”. Honors College Theses. Paper 35.
Souri, R., & Porjorat, M. (2017). “Relationship between Cosmetic Surgery and Psychological Variables”. Acta Medica International, 4(1). 96-100.
Sperry, S., Thompson, J. K., Sarwer, D. B., & Cash, T. F. (2009). “Cosmetic surgery reality TV viewership: Relations with cosmetic surgery attitudes, body image, and disordered eating”. Annals of Plastic Surgery, 62. 7–11.
Swami, V. (2009). “Body appreciation, media influence, and weight status predict consideration of cosmetic surgery among female undergraduates”. Body Image, 6. 315-317.
Swami, V., Arteche, A., Chamorro-Premuzic, T., Furnham, A., Stieger, S., Haubner, T. & Voracek, M. (2008). “Looking good: Factors affecting the likelihood of having cosmetic surgery”. European Journal of Plastic Surgery, 30. 211-218.
Swami, V., Campana, A. N. N. B., Ferreira, L., Barrett, S., Harris, A. S., & Tavares, M. D. C. G. C.F. (2011). “The acceptance of cosmetic surgery scale: initial examination of its factor structure and correlates among Brazilian adults”. Body Image, 8(2). 179–185.
Swami, V., Chamorro-Premuzic, T., Bridges, S., & Furnham, A. (2009). “Acceptance of cosmetic surgery: Personality and individual difference predictors”. Body Image, 6. 7–13.
Swami, V., Taylor, R., & Carvalho, C. (2009). “Acceptance of cosmetic surgery and celebrity worship: Evidence of associations among female undergraduates”. Personality and Individual Differences, 47. 869–872.
Tiggemann, M., & Miller, J. (2010). “The Internet and Adolescent Girls' Weight Satisfaction and Drive for Thinness”. Sex Roles, 63(1-2). 79-90.
Turkle, S. (2011). Alone Together: Why We Expect More from Technology and Less from Each Other. Basic Books, Inc. New York, NY, USA.
Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2001). “Age and birth cohort differences in self-esteem: A cross-temporal meta-analysis”. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5. 321–344.
Vesile, O., & Mustafa, Ş. (2010). “Examination of the relationship between the body image and self-esteem of female adolescents”. International Journal Of Human Sciences, 7(2). 543-556.