Diagnostic biomarker SDMA for kidney disease in small animals
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Published:
Oct 25, 2018
Keywords:
Renal biomarker; Symmetric dimethylarginine (SDMA), kidney disease, dogs and cats
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Abstract
Kidney disease is one of the most commonly found in dogs and cats. The Golden standard diagnosis for kidney disease in Veterinary Medicine. Veterinarians identify renal function by measured glomerular filtration rate (GFR), indirectly with increased serum or urine creatinine and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) are routinely diagnosed with kidney disease. But some factors are interfered with by these profiles such as body mass condition, high protein diet. These routine profiles can detect when the kidney function had decreased more than 75% Although this article reviews the newest renal biomarker; Symmetric dimethylarginine (SDMA) for diagnostic biomarker in kidney disease. It can detect at kidney function had decreased more than 25% which is a good biomarker for the early stage of kidney disease. This article will show the advantages of SDMA, can detect at the early stage of kidney disease before the serum creatinine was increasing. The application of this renal biomarker for detection at the early stage of kidney disease. Is mean that we can recover and correct the animals from loss of the kidney to be normal and reduce the progressions of kidney disease to a chronic stage in animals.
Article Details
How to Cite
matchimakul, pitchaya. (2018). Diagnostic biomarker SDMA for kidney disease in small animals. Veterinary Integrative Sciences, 16(3), 145–158. Retrieved from https://he02.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/vis/article/view/131421
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Review Article
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References
Bartges, J. W. (2012). Chronic kidney disease in dogs and cats. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract, 42(4), 669-692, vi. doi:10.1016/j.cvsm.2012.04.008
Bedford, M. T., & Richard, S. (2005). Arginine methylation an emerging regulator of protein function. Mol Cell, 18(3), 263-272. doi:10.1016/j.molcel.2005.04.003
Blackwell, S., O'Reilly, D. S., Reid, D., & Talwar, D. (2011). Plasma dimethylarginines during the acute inflammatory response. Eur J Clin Invest, 41(6), 635-641. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2362.2010.02451.x
Braff, J., Obare, E., Yerramilli, M., Elliott, J., & Yerramilli, M. (2014). Relationship between Serum Symmetric Dimethylarginine Concentration and Glomerular Filtration Rate in Cats. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 28(6), 1699-1701. doi:10.1111/jvim.12446
Bronson, R. T. (1982). Variation in age at death of dogs of different sexes and breeds. Am J Vet Res, 43(11), 2057-2059.
Chen, H., Avital, Y., & Segev, G. (2017). Biomarkers of Acute Kidney Injury. Israel Journal of Veterinary Medicine, 72(1), 3-12.
Cianciolo, R., Hokamp, J., & Nabity, M. (2016). Advances in the evaluation of canine renal disease. Veterinary Journal, 215, 21-29. doi:10.1016/j.tvjl.2016.04.012
Cobrin, A. R., Blois, S. L., Kruth, S. A., Abrams-Ogg, A. C., & Dewey, C. (2013). Biomarkers in the assessment of acute and chronic kidney diseases in the dog and cat. J Small Anim Pract, 54(12), 647-655. doi:10.1111/jsap.12150
Crivellenti, L. Z., Cianciolo, R., Wittum, T., Lees, G. E., & Adin, C. A. (2018). Associations of patient characteristics, disease stage, and biopsy technique with the diagnostic quality of core needle renal biopsy specimens from dogs with suspected kidney disease. J Am Vet Med Assoc, 252(1), 67-74. doi:10.2460/javma.252.1.67
Dahlem, D. P., Neiger, R., Schweighauser, A., Francey, T., Yerramilli, M., Obare, E., & Steinbach, S. M. L. (2017). Plasma Symmetric Dimethylarginine Concentration in Dogs with Acute Kidney Injury and Chronic Kidney Disease. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 31(3), 799-804. doi:10.1111/jvim.14694
English, P. B. (1974). Acute renal failure in the dog and cat. Aust Vet J, 50(9), 384-392.
Finco, D. R., Brown, S. A., Brown, C. A., Crowell, W. A., Cooper, T. A., & Barsanti, J. A. (1999). Progression of chronic renal disease in the dog. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 13(6), 516-528.
Hall, J. A., Yerramilli, M., Obare, E., Li, J., Yerramilli, M., & Jewell, D. E. (2017). Serum concentrations of symmetric dimethylarginine and creatinine in cats with kidney stones. Plos One, 12(4). doi:ARTN e0174854
10.1371/journal.pone.0174854
Hall, J. A., Yerramilli, M., Obare, E., Yerramilli, M., Almes, K., & Jewell, D. E. (2016). Serum Concentrations of Symmetric Dimethylarginine and Creatinine in Dogs with Naturally Occurring Chronic Kidney Disease. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 30(3), 794-802. doi:10.1111/jvim.13942
Hall, J. A., Yerramilli, M., Obare, E., Yerramilli, M., & Jewell, D. E. (2014). Comparison of Serum Concentrations of Symmetric Dimethylarginine and Creatinine as Kidney Function Biomarkers in Cats with Chronic Kidney Disease. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 28(6), 1676-1683. doi:10.1111/jvim.12445
Hall, J. A., Yerramilli, M., Obare, E., Yerramilli, M., Melendez, L. D., & Jewell, D. E. (2015). Relationship between lean body mass and serum renal biomarkers in healthy dogs. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 29(3), 808-814. doi:10.1111/jvim.12607
Hall, J. A., Yerramilli, M., Obare, E., Yerramilli, M., Yu, S., & Jewell, D. E. (2014). Comparison of serum concentrations of symmetric dimethylarginine and creatinine as kidney function biomarkers in healthy geriatric cats fed reduced protein foods enriched with fish oil, L-carnitine, and medium-chain triglycerides. Veterinary Journal, 202(3), 588-596. doi:10.1016/j.tvj1.2014.10.021
Hokamp, J. A., & Nabity, M. B. (2016). Renal biomarkers in domestic species. Vet Clin Pathol, 45(1), 28-56. doi:10.1111/vcp.12333
IRIS. (2016). International Renal Interest Society https://www.iris-kidney.com/guidelines/staging.html
Jepson, R. E., Syme, H. M., Vallance, C., & Elliott, J. (2008a). Plasma asymmetric dimethylarginine, symmetric dimethylarginine, L-arginine, and nitrite/nitrate concentrations in cats with chronic kidney disease and hypertension. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 22(2), 317-324. doi:10.1111/j.1939-1676.2008.0075.x
Jepson, R. E., Syme, H. M., Vallance, C., & Elliott, J. (2008b). Plasma asymmetric dimethylarginine, symmetric dimethylarginine, l-arginine, and nitrite/nitrate concentrations in cats with chronic kidney disease and hypertension. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 22(2), 317-324. doi:10.1111/j.1939-1676.2008.0075.x
Kai, K., Yamaguchi, T., Yoshimatsu, Y., Kinoshita, J., Teranishi, M., & Takasaki, W. (2013). Neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin, a sensitive urinary biomarker of acute kidney injury in dogs receiving gentamicin. Journal of Toxicological Sciences, 38(2), 269-277.
Kakimoto, Y., & Akazawa, S. (1970). Isolation and identification of N-G,N-G- and N-G,N'-G-dimethyl-arginine, N-epsilon-mono-, di-, and trimethyllysine, and glucosylgalactosyl- and galactosyl-delta-hydroxylysine from human urine. J Biol Chem, 245(21), 5751-5758.
Kiechl, S., Lee, T., Santer, P., Thompson, G., Tsimikas, S., Egger, G., . . . Mayr, M. (2009). Asymmetric and symmetric dimethylarginines are of similar predictive value for cardiovascular risk in the general population. Atherosclerosis, 205(1), 261-265. doi:10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2008.10.040
Kielstein, J. T., Boger, R. H., Bode-Boger, S. M., Frolich, J. C., Haller, H., Ritz, E., & Fliser, D. (2002). Marked increase of asymmetric dimethylarginine in patients with incipient primary chronic renal disease. J Am Soc Nephrol, 13(1), 170-176.
Kielstein, J. T., Salpeter, S. R., Bode-Boeger, S. M., Cooke, J. P., & Fliser, D. (2006). Symmetric dimethylarginine (SDMA) as endogenous marker of renal function--a meta-analysis. Nephrol Dial Transplant, 21(9), 2446-2451. doi:10.1093/ndt/gfl292
Krzyzanowska, K., Mittermayer, F., Shnawa, N., Hofer, M., Schnabler, J., Etmuller, Y., . . . Schernthaner, G. (2007). Asymmetrical dimethylarginine is related to renal function, chronic inflammation and macroangiopathy in patients with Type 2 diabetes and albuminuria. Diabet Med, 24(1), 81-86. doi:10.1111/j.1464-5491.2007.02018.x
Lee, Y. J., Hu, Y. Y., Lin, Y. S., Chang, C. T., Lin, F. Y., Wong, M. L., . . . Hsu, W. L. (2012). Urine neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) as a biomarker for acute canine kidney injury. BMC Vet Res, 8, 248. doi:10.1186/1746-6148-8-248
Lund, E. M., Armstrong, P. J., Kirk, C. A., Kolar, L. M., & Klausner, J. S. (1999). Health status and population characteristics of dogs and cats examined at private veterinary practices in the United States. J Am Vet Med Assoc, 214(9), 1336-1341.
Luneburg, N., von Holten, R. A., Topper, R. F., Schwedhelm, E., Maas, R., & Boger, R. H. (2012). Symmetric dimethylarginine is a marker of detrimental outcome in the acute phase after ischaemic stroke: role of renal function. Clin Sci (Lond), 122(3), 105-111. doi:10.1042/CS20110013
Marescau, B., Nagels, G., Possemiers, I., De Broe, M. E., Becaus, I., Billiouw, J. M., . . . De Deyn, P. P. (1997). Guanidino compounds in serum and urine of nondialyzed patients with chronic renal insufficiency. Metabolism, 46(9), 1024-1031.
Monti, P., Benchekroun, G., Berlato, D., & Archer, J. (2012). Initial evaluation of canine urinary cystatin C as a marker of renal tubular function. J Small Anim Pract, 53(5), 254-259. doi:10.1111/j.1748-5827.2012.01198.x
Mookerjee, R. P., Malaki, M., Davies, N. A., Hodges, S. J., Dalton, R. N., Turner, C., . . . Jalan, R. (2007). Increasing dimethylarginine levels are associated with adverse clinical outcome in severe alcoholic hepatitis. Hepatology, 45(1), 62-71. doi:10.1002/hep.21491
Nabity, M. B., Lees, G. E., Boggess, M. M., Yerramilli, M., Obare, E., Yerramilli, M., . . . Relford, R. (2015). Symmetric Dimethylarginine Assay Validation, Stability, and Evaluation as a Marker for the Early Detection of Chronic Kidney Disease in Dogs. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 29(4), 1036-1044. doi:10.1111/jvim.12835
O'Neill, D. G., Elliott, J., Church, D. B., McGreevy, P. D., Thomson, P. C., & Brodbelt, D. C. (2013). Chronic kidney disease in dogs in UK veterinary practices: prevalence, risk factors, and survival. J Vet Intern Med, 27(4), 814-821. doi:10.1111/jvim.12090
Oberbauer, R. (2008). Biomarkers-a potential route for improved diagnosis and management of ongoing renal damage. Transplant Proc, 40(10 Suppl), S44-47. doi:10.1016/j.transproceed.2008.10.005
Polzin, D. J. (2011). Chronic kidney disease in small animals. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract, 41(1), 15-30. doi:10.1016/j.cvsm.2010.09.004
Polzin, D. J. (2013). Evidence-based step-wise approach to managing chronic kidney disease in dogs and cats. J Vet Emerg Crit Care (San Antonio), 23(2), 205-215. doi:10.1111/vec.12034
Pomeroy, M. J., & Robertson, J. L. (2004). The relationship of age, sex, and glomerular location to the development of spontaneous lesions in the canine kidney: analysis of a life-span study. Toxicol Pathol, 32(2), 237-242. doi:10.1080/01926230490274407
Ross, L. (2011). Acute kidney injury in dogs and cats. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract, 41(1), 1-14. doi:10.1016/j.cvsm.2010.09.003
Schwedhelm, E., & Boger, R. H. (2011). The role of asymmetric and symmetric dimethylarginines in renal disease. Nat Rev Nephrol, 7(5), 275-285. doi:10.1038/nrneph.2011.31
Vaden, S. L., Levine, J., & Breitschwerdt, E. B. (1997). A retrospective case-control of acute renal failure in 99 dogs. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 11(2), 58-64.
Veldink, H., Faulhaber-Walter, R., Park, J. K., Martens-Lobenhoffer, J., Bode-Boger, S., Schuett, H., . . . Kielstein, J. T. (2013). Effects of chronic SDMA infusion on glomerular filtration rate, blood pressure, myocardial function and renal histology in C57BL6/J mice. Nephrol Dial Transplant, 28(6), 1434-1439. doi:10.1093/ndt/gfs554
Von Hendy-Willson, V. E., & Pressler, B. M. (2011). An overview of glomerular filtration rate testing in dogs and cats. Veterinary Journal, 188(2), 156-165. doi:10.1016/j.tvjl.2010.05.006
Wang, D., Strandgaard, S., Iversen, J., & Wilcox, C. S. (2009). Asymmetric dimethylarginine, oxidative stress, and vascular nitric oxide synthase in essential hypertension. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol, 296(2), R195-200. doi:10.1152/ajpregu.90506.2008
Yerramilli, M., Obare, E., Relford, R., Beall, M., & Yerramilli, M. (2013). Stability of Sdma (Symmetrical Dimethyl Arginine) in Canine and Feline Serum and Plasma. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 27(3), 737-737.
Bedford, M. T., & Richard, S. (2005). Arginine methylation an emerging regulator of protein function. Mol Cell, 18(3), 263-272. doi:10.1016/j.molcel.2005.04.003
Blackwell, S., O'Reilly, D. S., Reid, D., & Talwar, D. (2011). Plasma dimethylarginines during the acute inflammatory response. Eur J Clin Invest, 41(6), 635-641. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2362.2010.02451.x
Braff, J., Obare, E., Yerramilli, M., Elliott, J., & Yerramilli, M. (2014). Relationship between Serum Symmetric Dimethylarginine Concentration and Glomerular Filtration Rate in Cats. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 28(6), 1699-1701. doi:10.1111/jvim.12446
Bronson, R. T. (1982). Variation in age at death of dogs of different sexes and breeds. Am J Vet Res, 43(11), 2057-2059.
Chen, H., Avital, Y., & Segev, G. (2017). Biomarkers of Acute Kidney Injury. Israel Journal of Veterinary Medicine, 72(1), 3-12.
Cianciolo, R., Hokamp, J., & Nabity, M. (2016). Advances in the evaluation of canine renal disease. Veterinary Journal, 215, 21-29. doi:10.1016/j.tvjl.2016.04.012
Cobrin, A. R., Blois, S. L., Kruth, S. A., Abrams-Ogg, A. C., & Dewey, C. (2013). Biomarkers in the assessment of acute and chronic kidney diseases in the dog and cat. J Small Anim Pract, 54(12), 647-655. doi:10.1111/jsap.12150
Crivellenti, L. Z., Cianciolo, R., Wittum, T., Lees, G. E., & Adin, C. A. (2018). Associations of patient characteristics, disease stage, and biopsy technique with the diagnostic quality of core needle renal biopsy specimens from dogs with suspected kidney disease. J Am Vet Med Assoc, 252(1), 67-74. doi:10.2460/javma.252.1.67
Dahlem, D. P., Neiger, R., Schweighauser, A., Francey, T., Yerramilli, M., Obare, E., & Steinbach, S. M. L. (2017). Plasma Symmetric Dimethylarginine Concentration in Dogs with Acute Kidney Injury and Chronic Kidney Disease. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 31(3), 799-804. doi:10.1111/jvim.14694
English, P. B. (1974). Acute renal failure in the dog and cat. Aust Vet J, 50(9), 384-392.
Finco, D. R., Brown, S. A., Brown, C. A., Crowell, W. A., Cooper, T. A., & Barsanti, J. A. (1999). Progression of chronic renal disease in the dog. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 13(6), 516-528.
Hall, J. A., Yerramilli, M., Obare, E., Li, J., Yerramilli, M., & Jewell, D. E. (2017). Serum concentrations of symmetric dimethylarginine and creatinine in cats with kidney stones. Plos One, 12(4). doi:ARTN e0174854
10.1371/journal.pone.0174854
Hall, J. A., Yerramilli, M., Obare, E., Yerramilli, M., Almes, K., & Jewell, D. E. (2016). Serum Concentrations of Symmetric Dimethylarginine and Creatinine in Dogs with Naturally Occurring Chronic Kidney Disease. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 30(3), 794-802. doi:10.1111/jvim.13942
Hall, J. A., Yerramilli, M., Obare, E., Yerramilli, M., & Jewell, D. E. (2014). Comparison of Serum Concentrations of Symmetric Dimethylarginine and Creatinine as Kidney Function Biomarkers in Cats with Chronic Kidney Disease. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 28(6), 1676-1683. doi:10.1111/jvim.12445
Hall, J. A., Yerramilli, M., Obare, E., Yerramilli, M., Melendez, L. D., & Jewell, D. E. (2015). Relationship between lean body mass and serum renal biomarkers in healthy dogs. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 29(3), 808-814. doi:10.1111/jvim.12607
Hall, J. A., Yerramilli, M., Obare, E., Yerramilli, M., Yu, S., & Jewell, D. E. (2014). Comparison of serum concentrations of symmetric dimethylarginine and creatinine as kidney function biomarkers in healthy geriatric cats fed reduced protein foods enriched with fish oil, L-carnitine, and medium-chain triglycerides. Veterinary Journal, 202(3), 588-596. doi:10.1016/j.tvj1.2014.10.021
Hokamp, J. A., & Nabity, M. B. (2016). Renal biomarkers in domestic species. Vet Clin Pathol, 45(1), 28-56. doi:10.1111/vcp.12333
IRIS. (2016). International Renal Interest Society https://www.iris-kidney.com/guidelines/staging.html
Jepson, R. E., Syme, H. M., Vallance, C., & Elliott, J. (2008a). Plasma asymmetric dimethylarginine, symmetric dimethylarginine, L-arginine, and nitrite/nitrate concentrations in cats with chronic kidney disease and hypertension. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 22(2), 317-324. doi:10.1111/j.1939-1676.2008.0075.x
Jepson, R. E., Syme, H. M., Vallance, C., & Elliott, J. (2008b). Plasma asymmetric dimethylarginine, symmetric dimethylarginine, l-arginine, and nitrite/nitrate concentrations in cats with chronic kidney disease and hypertension. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 22(2), 317-324. doi:10.1111/j.1939-1676.2008.0075.x
Kai, K., Yamaguchi, T., Yoshimatsu, Y., Kinoshita, J., Teranishi, M., & Takasaki, W. (2013). Neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin, a sensitive urinary biomarker of acute kidney injury in dogs receiving gentamicin. Journal of Toxicological Sciences, 38(2), 269-277.
Kakimoto, Y., & Akazawa, S. (1970). Isolation and identification of N-G,N-G- and N-G,N'-G-dimethyl-arginine, N-epsilon-mono-, di-, and trimethyllysine, and glucosylgalactosyl- and galactosyl-delta-hydroxylysine from human urine. J Biol Chem, 245(21), 5751-5758.
Kiechl, S., Lee, T., Santer, P., Thompson, G., Tsimikas, S., Egger, G., . . . Mayr, M. (2009). Asymmetric and symmetric dimethylarginines are of similar predictive value for cardiovascular risk in the general population. Atherosclerosis, 205(1), 261-265. doi:10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2008.10.040
Kielstein, J. T., Boger, R. H., Bode-Boger, S. M., Frolich, J. C., Haller, H., Ritz, E., & Fliser, D. (2002). Marked increase of asymmetric dimethylarginine in patients with incipient primary chronic renal disease. J Am Soc Nephrol, 13(1), 170-176.
Kielstein, J. T., Salpeter, S. R., Bode-Boeger, S. M., Cooke, J. P., & Fliser, D. (2006). Symmetric dimethylarginine (SDMA) as endogenous marker of renal function--a meta-analysis. Nephrol Dial Transplant, 21(9), 2446-2451. doi:10.1093/ndt/gfl292
Krzyzanowska, K., Mittermayer, F., Shnawa, N., Hofer, M., Schnabler, J., Etmuller, Y., . . . Schernthaner, G. (2007). Asymmetrical dimethylarginine is related to renal function, chronic inflammation and macroangiopathy in patients with Type 2 diabetes and albuminuria. Diabet Med, 24(1), 81-86. doi:10.1111/j.1464-5491.2007.02018.x
Lee, Y. J., Hu, Y. Y., Lin, Y. S., Chang, C. T., Lin, F. Y., Wong, M. L., . . . Hsu, W. L. (2012). Urine neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) as a biomarker for acute canine kidney injury. BMC Vet Res, 8, 248. doi:10.1186/1746-6148-8-248
Lund, E. M., Armstrong, P. J., Kirk, C. A., Kolar, L. M., & Klausner, J. S. (1999). Health status and population characteristics of dogs and cats examined at private veterinary practices in the United States. J Am Vet Med Assoc, 214(9), 1336-1341.
Luneburg, N., von Holten, R. A., Topper, R. F., Schwedhelm, E., Maas, R., & Boger, R. H. (2012). Symmetric dimethylarginine is a marker of detrimental outcome in the acute phase after ischaemic stroke: role of renal function. Clin Sci (Lond), 122(3), 105-111. doi:10.1042/CS20110013
Marescau, B., Nagels, G., Possemiers, I., De Broe, M. E., Becaus, I., Billiouw, J. M., . . . De Deyn, P. P. (1997). Guanidino compounds in serum and urine of nondialyzed patients with chronic renal insufficiency. Metabolism, 46(9), 1024-1031.
Monti, P., Benchekroun, G., Berlato, D., & Archer, J. (2012). Initial evaluation of canine urinary cystatin C as a marker of renal tubular function. J Small Anim Pract, 53(5), 254-259. doi:10.1111/j.1748-5827.2012.01198.x
Mookerjee, R. P., Malaki, M., Davies, N. A., Hodges, S. J., Dalton, R. N., Turner, C., . . . Jalan, R. (2007). Increasing dimethylarginine levels are associated with adverse clinical outcome in severe alcoholic hepatitis. Hepatology, 45(1), 62-71. doi:10.1002/hep.21491
Nabity, M. B., Lees, G. E., Boggess, M. M., Yerramilli, M., Obare, E., Yerramilli, M., . . . Relford, R. (2015). Symmetric Dimethylarginine Assay Validation, Stability, and Evaluation as a Marker for the Early Detection of Chronic Kidney Disease in Dogs. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 29(4), 1036-1044. doi:10.1111/jvim.12835
O'Neill, D. G., Elliott, J., Church, D. B., McGreevy, P. D., Thomson, P. C., & Brodbelt, D. C. (2013). Chronic kidney disease in dogs in UK veterinary practices: prevalence, risk factors, and survival. J Vet Intern Med, 27(4), 814-821. doi:10.1111/jvim.12090
Oberbauer, R. (2008). Biomarkers-a potential route for improved diagnosis and management of ongoing renal damage. Transplant Proc, 40(10 Suppl), S44-47. doi:10.1016/j.transproceed.2008.10.005
Polzin, D. J. (2011). Chronic kidney disease in small animals. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract, 41(1), 15-30. doi:10.1016/j.cvsm.2010.09.004
Polzin, D. J. (2013). Evidence-based step-wise approach to managing chronic kidney disease in dogs and cats. J Vet Emerg Crit Care (San Antonio), 23(2), 205-215. doi:10.1111/vec.12034
Pomeroy, M. J., & Robertson, J. L. (2004). The relationship of age, sex, and glomerular location to the development of spontaneous lesions in the canine kidney: analysis of a life-span study. Toxicol Pathol, 32(2), 237-242. doi:10.1080/01926230490274407
Ross, L. (2011). Acute kidney injury in dogs and cats. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract, 41(1), 1-14. doi:10.1016/j.cvsm.2010.09.003
Schwedhelm, E., & Boger, R. H. (2011). The role of asymmetric and symmetric dimethylarginines in renal disease. Nat Rev Nephrol, 7(5), 275-285. doi:10.1038/nrneph.2011.31
Vaden, S. L., Levine, J., & Breitschwerdt, E. B. (1997). A retrospective case-control of acute renal failure in 99 dogs. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 11(2), 58-64.
Veldink, H., Faulhaber-Walter, R., Park, J. K., Martens-Lobenhoffer, J., Bode-Boger, S., Schuett, H., . . . Kielstein, J. T. (2013). Effects of chronic SDMA infusion on glomerular filtration rate, blood pressure, myocardial function and renal histology in C57BL6/J mice. Nephrol Dial Transplant, 28(6), 1434-1439. doi:10.1093/ndt/gfs554
Von Hendy-Willson, V. E., & Pressler, B. M. (2011). An overview of glomerular filtration rate testing in dogs and cats. Veterinary Journal, 188(2), 156-165. doi:10.1016/j.tvjl.2010.05.006
Wang, D., Strandgaard, S., Iversen, J., & Wilcox, C. S. (2009). Asymmetric dimethylarginine, oxidative stress, and vascular nitric oxide synthase in essential hypertension. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol, 296(2), R195-200. doi:10.1152/ajpregu.90506.2008
Yerramilli, M., Obare, E., Relford, R., Beall, M., & Yerramilli, M. (2013). Stability of Sdma (Symmetrical Dimethyl Arginine) in Canine and Feline Serum and Plasma. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 27(3), 737-737.