Growth and reproduction of captive Pacific Walrus (Odobenus rosmarus divergens)
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Published:
Apr 7, 2020
Keywords:
birth interval pregnancy reproductive behavior urinary sex steroid hormones walrus
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Abstract
A pair of pacific walruses were subjected for a long term study for 20 years on their growth and reproduction since 6 months of age, and succeed breeding four times. The body lengths both male and female walruses continued to grow after they have reach the sexual maturity, until the age of 14 years, then growth have reached their plateau. The ages of the male and the female at sexual maturation were 10 and 9 year-old. The body weight markedly increased in the breeding season in the sexually matured male, showing the “fatted male phenomenon”. The copulatory behavior showed a clear seasonal pattern, which was observed for one or two days, during February 26 through March 22. Parturition occurred during May 3 through June 6, and the mean gestation period was 441 ± 2.3 days (n = 4). The urinary estrone conjugate (EC) and pregnanediol-3-glucuronide (PDG) in the pregnant female showed sharp increase in the late September, an approximately 200-day after copulation, as the body weight of pregnant female started to increase. These results may be suggesting that delayed implantation had been completed and fetal development had started. The calf started to wean at approximately 6 months, although the nursing continued throughout the following 3 years until the next parturition. The birth interval was three years.
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Katsumata, E., Katsumata, . H. ., Arai, . K. ., Nakano, Y. ., & Taya, . K. . (2020). Growth and reproduction of captive Pacific Walrus (Odobenus rosmarus divergens) . Veterinary Integrative Sciences, 18(2), 85–102. Retrieved from https://he02.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/vis/article/view/240059
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References
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Born, E. W. 2003. Reproduction in male Atlantic walruses (Odobenus rosmarus rosmarus) from the north water (N Baffin Bay). Mar. Mamm. Sci. 19, 819-831.
Boyd, I. L. 1991. Environmental and physiological factors controlling the reproductive cycle of pinnipeds. Can. J. Zool. 69, 1135-1148.
Boyd, I. L., Locker, C. and Marsh, H. 1999. Reproduction in marine mammals.
pp. 218-286. In: Biology of marine mammals. (Reynolds, J. E. and Rommel,
S. A. eds.), Smithonian Institution Press, Washinton.
Brown, D. H. 1962. The health problems of walrus calves and remarks on their general progress in captivity. Int. Zoo Yearb. 4, 13-23.
Brown, D. H. and Asper, E. D. 1966. Further observations on the Pacific walrus Odobenus rosmarus divergens in captivity. Int. Zoo Yearb. 6, 78-82.
DaSilva, I. M. and Larson, S. 2005. Predicting reproduction in captive sea otters (Enhydra lutris). Zoo Biol. 24, 73-81.
Dittrich, L. 1987. Observations on keeping the Pacific walrus, Odobenus rosmarus divergens, at the Hanover Zoo. Int. Zoo Yearb. 26, 163-170.
DuMond, F. V. and Hutchinson, T. C. 1967. Squirrel Monkey Reproduction “The Fatted Male Phenomenon and Season Spermatogenesis”. Science: 158, 1067-1070.
Fay, F. H. 1982. Ecology and biology of the Pacific walrus, Odobenus rosmarus divergens, Illiger. North American Fauna No. 74. United States Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington.
Fay, F. H., Ray, G. C. and Kibal’chich, A. 1981. Time and location of mating and associated behavior of the Pacific walrus, Odobenus rosmarus divergens Illiger. Fay, F. H and Fedoseev, G. A. (eds) Soviet- American Cooperative research on Marine Mammals.VOL.1, Pinnipeds (pp. 89-99). NOAA Technical Report NMFS 12. Washington DC: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
Garlich-Miller, J. L. and Stewart, R. E. A. 1998. Growth and Sexual Dimorphism of Atlantic walruses (Odobenus rosmarus rosmarus) in Foxe Basin, Northwest Territories, Canada. Mar. Mamm. Sci.14, 803-818.
Garlich-Miller, J. L. and Stewart, R. E. A. 1999. Female reproductive patterns and fetal growth of a Atlantic walruses (Odobenus rosmarus rosmarus) in Foxe Basin, Northwest territories, Canada. Mar. Mamm. Sci. 15, 179-191.
Ichikawa, S. and Tamada, H. 1980. The effect of oestrogen on uterine plasticity in late pregnant rats. J. Reprod. Fertil. 58, 165–168.
Kastelein, R. A., Schooneman, N. M. and Wiepkema, P. R. 2000. Food consumption and growth of Pacific walruses (Odobenus rosmarus divergens). Aquat. Mammal. 26, 175-190.
Kastelein R. A., Belt I. V., Jennings, N. and Kruijf. R. 2015. Behavior and Body Mass Changes of a Mother and Calf Walrus (Odobenus rosmarus divergens) During the Suckling Period. Zoo Biol. 34, 9-19.
Katsumata, E., Hori, T. and Tsutsui, T. 2003. Contraceptive effect of proligestone on spotted seals and crossbreeds of spotted seals and harbor seals. J. Vet. Med. Sci. 65, 619-623.
Katsumata, E. 2010. Study on Reproduction of captive marine mammals. J. Reprod. Dev. 56, 1-8.
Kinoshita, K., Kiwata, M., Kiwano, R., Sato, N., Tanaka, T., Nagata, M., Taira, H. and Kusunoki, H. 2012. Temporal association of serum progesterone concentrations and vaginal cytology in walruses (Odobenus rosmarus). Theriogenology 77, 933-939.
Larson, S., Casson, C. J. and Wasser, S. 2003. Noninvasive reproductive steroid
hormone estimates from fecal samples of captive sea otters (Enhydra lutris).
Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 134, 18-25.
MaLaren, I. A. 1993. Growth in Pinnipeds. Biol. Rev. Cambridge Philos. Soc. 68, 1-79.
Munro, C. J., Stabenfeldt, G. H., Cragun, J. R., Addiego, L. A., Overstreet, J. W. and Lasley, B. L. 1991. Relationship of serum estradiol and progesterone concentrations to the excretion profiles of their major urinary metabolites as measured by enzyme immunoassay and radioimmunoassay. Clin. Chem. 37, 838-844.
Nadler, R. D. and Rosenblum, L. A. 1972. Hormonal regulation of the “fatted phenomenon in Squirrel monkeys. Anat. Rec.173, 181-187.
Nakajioma, M. 1979. Keeping baby walruses at Izu-Mito Sea Paradise. Anima Zoos 31, 20-23 (in Japanese).
Nakajoma, M., Kohyama, K., and Kamiya, T. (1998a). A morphological Study of the Pacific Walrus, (Odobenus rosmarus divergens). Jour. Jpn. Assoc. Zoo. Aqu. 39, 77-87 ( in Japanese).
Nakajoma, M., Kohyama, K. and Kamiya, T. (1998b). Clinical and Pathoanatomical Notes on the Pacific Walrus, (Odobenus rosmarus divergens). Jour. Jpn. Assoc. Zoo. Aqu. 40, 1-7 (in Japanese).
Nitto, H., Kawamura, T. and Baba, N. 1998. Changes in Body weight of the Steller Sea Lion (Eumetopias jubatus) in Captivity. Jour. Jpn. Assoc. Zoo. Aqu. 40, 8-13 ( in Japanese).
Pournelle, G. H. 1961. Pacific walrus (Odobenus rosmarus devergens) at the San Diego Zoo. Int. Zoo. Yearb. 12, 78-80.
Robeck, T. R., Atkinson, S. K. C. and Brook, F. 2001. Reproduction. In: Dierauf, L., A. and Gulland, F., M., D. (eds) CRC Handbook of Marine Mammal Medicine ( 2nd ed., pp. 193-236). CRC Press. Boca Raton, FL.
Sato, M., Tsubota, T., Yamamoto, K., Komatsu, T., Hashimoto, Y., Katayama, A., Hazumi, T., Kita, I., Kudo, T. 2000. Serum progesterone and estradiol-17βconcentrations in captive and free-ranging adult female Japanese black bears (Ursus thibetanus japonicus). J.Vet. Med. Sci. 62:415–420.
Sato, M., Tsubota, T., Komatsu, T., Watanabe, G., Taya, K., Murase, T., Kita, I. and Kudo, T. 2001. Changes in sex steroids, gonadotropins, prolactin, and inhibin in pregnant and nonpregnant Japanese black bears (Ursus thibetanus japonicus). Biol. Reprod. 65, 1006-1013.
Schusterman, R. L. and Gentry, R. L. 1971. Development of a Fatted Male
Phenomenon in California Sea Lions. Dev. Psychobiol. 4, 333-338.
Tamada, H., Ichikawa, S. 1980. The effect of estrogen on fetal survival in progesterone-treated ovariectomized rats. Endocrinol. Jpn. 27, 163–167.
Tamada, H. and Mori, J. 1995. Fetal survival in ovariectomized uterus-incised rats. Lab. Anim. Sci. 45, 281–284.
Tamada, H., Shimizu, Y., Inaba, T., Kawate, N. and Sawada, T. 2004. The effects of the aromatase inhibitor fadrozole hydrochloride on fetuses and ureri in late pregnant rats. J. Endocrinol. 180, 337–345.
Tanaka S. 2013. Implantation, maintenance of pregnancy and delivery. pp. 222−237 In: Society for Reproduction and Development (eds.) Reproductive Biology, Textbook of Reproduction and Development.
Taussky, A.,H. 1954. A microcolorimetric determination of creatinine in urine by the Jaffe reaction. J. Biol. Cnem. 208, 853–861.
Taya, K. and Sasamoto, S. 1989. Inhibitory effects of corticotrophin-releasing factor and β-endorphin on LH and FSH secretion in the lactating rat. J. Endocrinol. 120, 509-515.
Taya, K. and Sasamoto, S. 1991. Mechanisms responsible for suppression of FSH and LH during lactation in the rat. J. Endocrinol. 129, 119-130.
Temte, J. L. 1985. Photoperiod and delayed implantation in the northern fur seal (Callorhinus unsinus). J. Reprod. Fert. 73, 127-131.
Temte, J. L. and Temte, J. 1993. Photoperiod defines the phenology of birth in captive California sea lions. Mar. Mamm. Sci. 9, 301-308.
Triggs, L. 2013. Establishing Endocrine and Behavioral parameters of Reproduction in Pacific Walrus (Odobemus rosumarus devergens). A thesis Master of Science University of Washington. Retrieved from https://digital.lib.washington.edu/researchworks/, pdf.
Tsubota, T., Kanagawa, H., Yamamoto, K., Mano, T., Yamanaka, M., Kita, I.and Tiba T. 1992. Serum progesterone concentrations using P-EIA kit in captive and free-ranging Hokkaido brown bears, Ursus arctos yesoensis. J. Vet. Med. Sci. 54,1–5.
Walsh, M. T., Andrews, B. and Antrim, J. 2001. Walrus. pp.927-937. In: Dierauf, L., A. and Gulland, F., M., D. (eds) CRC Handbook of Marine Mammal Medicine ( 2nd ed.). Boca Raton, FL.
Winsor, C. D. 1932. The Gompertz curve as a growth curve. Proc. Natl. acad.sci. 18, 1-8.
Yamada, S., Uenoyama, Y., Kinoshita, M., Iwata, K., Takase, K., Matsui, H., Adachi, S., Inoue, K., Maeda, K. and Tsukamura, H. 2007. Inhibition of Metastin (Kisspeptin-54)-GPR54 signaling in the arcuate nucleus-median eminence region during lactation in rats. Endocrinology 148, 2226–2232.
Yamada, S., Uenoyama, Y., Deura, C., Minabe, S., Naniwa, Y., Iwata, K., Kawata, M., Maeda, K. and Tsukamura, H. 2012. Oestrogen-dependent suppression of pulsatile luteinising hormone secretion and Kiss1 mRNA expression in the arcuate nucleus during late lactation in rats. J. Neuroendocrinol. 24, 1234–1242.
Atkinson, S., 1997. Reproductive biology of seals. Rev. Reprod. 2, 175-194.
Bartsch, R.C., Frueh, B., S. 1971. Alveolitis and Pulpitis of a Canine Tooth in a Walrus. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 159, 575-577.
Born, E. W., 2001. Reproduction in female Atlantic walruses (Odobenus rosmarus rosmarus) from north-west Greenland. J. Zool. 255, 165-174.
Born, E. W. 2003. Reproduction in male Atlantic walruses (Odobenus rosmarus rosmarus) from the north water (N Baffin Bay). Mar. Mamm. Sci. 19, 819-831.
Boyd, I. L. 1991. Environmental and physiological factors controlling the reproductive cycle of pinnipeds. Can. J. Zool. 69, 1135-1148.
Boyd, I. L., Locker, C. and Marsh, H. 1999. Reproduction in marine mammals.
pp. 218-286. In: Biology of marine mammals. (Reynolds, J. E. and Rommel,
S. A. eds.), Smithonian Institution Press, Washinton.
Brown, D. H. 1962. The health problems of walrus calves and remarks on their general progress in captivity. Int. Zoo Yearb. 4, 13-23.
Brown, D. H. and Asper, E. D. 1966. Further observations on the Pacific walrus Odobenus rosmarus divergens in captivity. Int. Zoo Yearb. 6, 78-82.
DaSilva, I. M. and Larson, S. 2005. Predicting reproduction in captive sea otters (Enhydra lutris). Zoo Biol. 24, 73-81.
Dittrich, L. 1987. Observations on keeping the Pacific walrus, Odobenus rosmarus divergens, at the Hanover Zoo. Int. Zoo Yearb. 26, 163-170.
DuMond, F. V. and Hutchinson, T. C. 1967. Squirrel Monkey Reproduction “The Fatted Male Phenomenon and Season Spermatogenesis”. Science: 158, 1067-1070.
Fay, F. H. 1982. Ecology and biology of the Pacific walrus, Odobenus rosmarus divergens, Illiger. North American Fauna No. 74. United States Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington.
Fay, F. H., Ray, G. C. and Kibal’chich, A. 1981. Time and location of mating and associated behavior of the Pacific walrus, Odobenus rosmarus divergens Illiger. Fay, F. H and Fedoseev, G. A. (eds) Soviet- American Cooperative research on Marine Mammals.VOL.1, Pinnipeds (pp. 89-99). NOAA Technical Report NMFS 12. Washington DC: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
Garlich-Miller, J. L. and Stewart, R. E. A. 1998. Growth and Sexual Dimorphism of Atlantic walruses (Odobenus rosmarus rosmarus) in Foxe Basin, Northwest Territories, Canada. Mar. Mamm. Sci.14, 803-818.
Garlich-Miller, J. L. and Stewart, R. E. A. 1999. Female reproductive patterns and fetal growth of a Atlantic walruses (Odobenus rosmarus rosmarus) in Foxe Basin, Northwest territories, Canada. Mar. Mamm. Sci. 15, 179-191.
Ichikawa, S. and Tamada, H. 1980. The effect of oestrogen on uterine plasticity in late pregnant rats. J. Reprod. Fertil. 58, 165–168.
Kastelein, R. A., Schooneman, N. M. and Wiepkema, P. R. 2000. Food consumption and growth of Pacific walruses (Odobenus rosmarus divergens). Aquat. Mammal. 26, 175-190.
Kastelein R. A., Belt I. V., Jennings, N. and Kruijf. R. 2015. Behavior and Body Mass Changes of a Mother and Calf Walrus (Odobenus rosmarus divergens) During the Suckling Period. Zoo Biol. 34, 9-19.
Katsumata, E., Hori, T. and Tsutsui, T. 2003. Contraceptive effect of proligestone on spotted seals and crossbreeds of spotted seals and harbor seals. J. Vet. Med. Sci. 65, 619-623.
Katsumata, E. 2010. Study on Reproduction of captive marine mammals. J. Reprod. Dev. 56, 1-8.
Kinoshita, K., Kiwata, M., Kiwano, R., Sato, N., Tanaka, T., Nagata, M., Taira, H. and Kusunoki, H. 2012. Temporal association of serum progesterone concentrations and vaginal cytology in walruses (Odobenus rosmarus). Theriogenology 77, 933-939.
Larson, S., Casson, C. J. and Wasser, S. 2003. Noninvasive reproductive steroid
hormone estimates from fecal samples of captive sea otters (Enhydra lutris).
Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 134, 18-25.
MaLaren, I. A. 1993. Growth in Pinnipeds. Biol. Rev. Cambridge Philos. Soc. 68, 1-79.
Munro, C. J., Stabenfeldt, G. H., Cragun, J. R., Addiego, L. A., Overstreet, J. W. and Lasley, B. L. 1991. Relationship of serum estradiol and progesterone concentrations to the excretion profiles of their major urinary metabolites as measured by enzyme immunoassay and radioimmunoassay. Clin. Chem. 37, 838-844.
Nadler, R. D. and Rosenblum, L. A. 1972. Hormonal regulation of the “fatted phenomenon in Squirrel monkeys. Anat. Rec.173, 181-187.
Nakajioma, M. 1979. Keeping baby walruses at Izu-Mito Sea Paradise. Anima Zoos 31, 20-23 (in Japanese).
Nakajoma, M., Kohyama, K., and Kamiya, T. (1998a). A morphological Study of the Pacific Walrus, (Odobenus rosmarus divergens). Jour. Jpn. Assoc. Zoo. Aqu. 39, 77-87 ( in Japanese).
Nakajoma, M., Kohyama, K. and Kamiya, T. (1998b). Clinical and Pathoanatomical Notes on the Pacific Walrus, (Odobenus rosmarus divergens). Jour. Jpn. Assoc. Zoo. Aqu. 40, 1-7 (in Japanese).
Nitto, H., Kawamura, T. and Baba, N. 1998. Changes in Body weight of the Steller Sea Lion (Eumetopias jubatus) in Captivity. Jour. Jpn. Assoc. Zoo. Aqu. 40, 8-13 ( in Japanese).
Pournelle, G. H. 1961. Pacific walrus (Odobenus rosmarus devergens) at the San Diego Zoo. Int. Zoo. Yearb. 12, 78-80.
Robeck, T. R., Atkinson, S. K. C. and Brook, F. 2001. Reproduction. In: Dierauf, L., A. and Gulland, F., M., D. (eds) CRC Handbook of Marine Mammal Medicine ( 2nd ed., pp. 193-236). CRC Press. Boca Raton, FL.
Sato, M., Tsubota, T., Yamamoto, K., Komatsu, T., Hashimoto, Y., Katayama, A., Hazumi, T., Kita, I., Kudo, T. 2000. Serum progesterone and estradiol-17βconcentrations in captive and free-ranging adult female Japanese black bears (Ursus thibetanus japonicus). J.Vet. Med. Sci. 62:415–420.
Sato, M., Tsubota, T., Komatsu, T., Watanabe, G., Taya, K., Murase, T., Kita, I. and Kudo, T. 2001. Changes in sex steroids, gonadotropins, prolactin, and inhibin in pregnant and nonpregnant Japanese black bears (Ursus thibetanus japonicus). Biol. Reprod. 65, 1006-1013.
Schusterman, R. L. and Gentry, R. L. 1971. Development of a Fatted Male
Phenomenon in California Sea Lions. Dev. Psychobiol. 4, 333-338.
Tamada, H., Ichikawa, S. 1980. The effect of estrogen on fetal survival in progesterone-treated ovariectomized rats. Endocrinol. Jpn. 27, 163–167.
Tamada, H. and Mori, J. 1995. Fetal survival in ovariectomized uterus-incised rats. Lab. Anim. Sci. 45, 281–284.
Tamada, H., Shimizu, Y., Inaba, T., Kawate, N. and Sawada, T. 2004. The effects of the aromatase inhibitor fadrozole hydrochloride on fetuses and ureri in late pregnant rats. J. Endocrinol. 180, 337–345.
Tanaka S. 2013. Implantation, maintenance of pregnancy and delivery. pp. 222−237 In: Society for Reproduction and Development (eds.) Reproductive Biology, Textbook of Reproduction and Development.
Taussky, A.,H. 1954. A microcolorimetric determination of creatinine in urine by the Jaffe reaction. J. Biol. Cnem. 208, 853–861.
Taya, K. and Sasamoto, S. 1989. Inhibitory effects of corticotrophin-releasing factor and β-endorphin on LH and FSH secretion in the lactating rat. J. Endocrinol. 120, 509-515.
Taya, K. and Sasamoto, S. 1991. Mechanisms responsible for suppression of FSH and LH during lactation in the rat. J. Endocrinol. 129, 119-130.
Temte, J. L. 1985. Photoperiod and delayed implantation in the northern fur seal (Callorhinus unsinus). J. Reprod. Fert. 73, 127-131.
Temte, J. L. and Temte, J. 1993. Photoperiod defines the phenology of birth in captive California sea lions. Mar. Mamm. Sci. 9, 301-308.
Triggs, L. 2013. Establishing Endocrine and Behavioral parameters of Reproduction in Pacific Walrus (Odobemus rosumarus devergens). A thesis Master of Science University of Washington. Retrieved from https://digital.lib.washington.edu/researchworks/, pdf.
Tsubota, T., Kanagawa, H., Yamamoto, K., Mano, T., Yamanaka, M., Kita, I.and Tiba T. 1992. Serum progesterone concentrations using P-EIA kit in captive and free-ranging Hokkaido brown bears, Ursus arctos yesoensis. J. Vet. Med. Sci. 54,1–5.
Walsh, M. T., Andrews, B. and Antrim, J. 2001. Walrus. pp.927-937. In: Dierauf, L., A. and Gulland, F., M., D. (eds) CRC Handbook of Marine Mammal Medicine ( 2nd ed.). Boca Raton, FL.
Winsor, C. D. 1932. The Gompertz curve as a growth curve. Proc. Natl. acad.sci. 18, 1-8.
Yamada, S., Uenoyama, Y., Kinoshita, M., Iwata, K., Takase, K., Matsui, H., Adachi, S., Inoue, K., Maeda, K. and Tsukamura, H. 2007. Inhibition of Metastin (Kisspeptin-54)-GPR54 signaling in the arcuate nucleus-median eminence region during lactation in rats. Endocrinology 148, 2226–2232.
Yamada, S., Uenoyama, Y., Deura, C., Minabe, S., Naniwa, Y., Iwata, K., Kawata, M., Maeda, K. and Tsukamura, H. 2012. Oestrogen-dependent suppression of pulsatile luteinising hormone secretion and Kiss1 mRNA expression in the arcuate nucleus during late lactation in rats. J. Neuroendocrinol. 24, 1234–1242.